Introduction
The relationship between India and Pakistan is one of the most complex and enduring rivalries in modern international relations, deeply rooted in the historical circumstances of their birth, fueled by persistent disputes, and exacerbated by cross-border terrorism. From the contentious issues of Partition to multiple major conflicts and the perennial Kashmir dispute, their interactions have shaped the geopolitics of South Asia. This topic delves into the historical background of the partition, the evolution of the Kashmir dispute, major wars and conflicts, the challenge of cross-border terrorism, efforts at bilateral engagements and Confidence Building Measures (CBMs), the state of their economic and cultural ties, and the strategic implications of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) for India.
4.1.1: Historical Background and Partition Issues
Radcliffe Line (1947)
The boundary demarcation line between India and Pakistan, drawn by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, Chairman of the Border Commission.
Impact:
- The hasty and poorly defined demarcation led to widespread violence, mass migrations, and unresolved territorial disputes, particularly in Bengal and Punjab.
Princely States
At independence, over 560 princely states (nominally sovereign but under British paramountcy) were given the option to accede to either India or Pakistan, or remain independent (though practically not viable).
- Kashmir: Predominantly Muslim population, but ruled by a Hindu Maharaja (Hari Singh). His delayed decision and the subsequent invasion by Pakistani tribal militias led to his accession to India, triggering the First Indo-Pak War (1947-48) and the ongoing dispute.
- Junagadh: Predominantly Hindu population, but its Muslim Nawab acceded to Pakistan. India conducted a plebiscite (referendum), and the state acceded to India.
- Hyderabad: Predominantly Hindu population, but its Muslim Nizam wanted to remain independent. India undertook "Operation Polo" (1948), integrating it into the Indian Union.
4.1.2: Kashmir Dispute
1947-48 War:
Following Hari Singh's accession to India, Pakistani-backed tribal invaders entered Kashmir. Indian forces intervened. A ceasefire line was established, dividing the region into India-administered Jammu & Kashmir (J&K) and Pakistan-administered Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan (PoK).
UN Resolutions (1948, 1949):
Called for a ceasefire, demilitarization, and a plebiscite to determine Kashmir's future. India insists on Pakistan withdrawing its troops from PoK before a plebiscite, which Pakistan has not done. India views Pakistan's occupation of PoK as illegal.
Simla Agreement (1972):
Signed between India and Pakistan after the 1971 war. Both countries committed to settling differences by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations, bypassing third-party intervention. It converted the 1949 ceasefire line into the Line of Control (LoC), which is to be "respected by both sides without prejudice to the recognized position of either side."
What it did:
The Indian government abrogated Article 370 of the Constitution (which granted special autonomous status to J&K) and Article 35A (which defined permanent residents and their rights).
Reorganization:
The state of Jammu & Kashmir was reorganized into two Union Territories: Jammu & Kashmir (with a legislature) and Ladakh (without a legislature).
Rationale (India):
India argued it was an internal affair, aimed at fully integrating J&K, promoting development, reducing separatism, and countering terrorism.
Pakistan's Reaction:
Strong condemnation, downgrading diplomatic ties, international lobbying.
Current Status:
India maintains J&K and Ladakh are integral and inalienable parts of India. Pakistan continues to dispute the abrogation and challenges India's sovereignty over J&K.
4.1.3: Major Wars and Conflicts
1947-48 War
Over Kashmir, resulted in the division of Kashmir along the Ceasefire Line (later LoC).
1965 War
Largely over Kashmir (Operation Gibraltar by Pakistan) and the Rann of Kutch. Ended inconclusively with the Tashkent Agreement.
1971 War (Bangladesh Liberation War)
Cause:
Pakistan's brutal crackdown on Bengali nationalists in East Pakistan, leading to a massive refugee influx into India.
Outcome:
India's decisive military victory, leading to the creation of Bangladesh as an independent nation. Pakistan's surrender and signing of the Simla Agreement.
Kargil War (1999)
Cause:
Pakistani infiltration (both regular and irregular forces) across the LoC into Indian territory in Kargil.
Outcome:
India successfully pushed back the infiltrators (Operation Vijay). Pakistan faced international condemnation.
Significance:
First overt conflict between two nuclear-armed states, highlighting the risks of escalation.
4.1.4: Cross-border Terrorism
Non-State Actors
Pakistan has historically used non-state actors (terrorist groups) as instruments of its foreign policy against India.
Key Groups:
- Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT)
- Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM)
- Hizbul Mujahideen (HM)
FATF Role
The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is an intergovernmental organization that combats money laundering and terrorist financing.
Pakistan was on FATF's "grey list" for several years due to deficiencies in its AML/CTF regime, reflecting international pressure to curb terror financing. (Pakistan was removed from the grey list in October 2022).
Recent Incidents & India's Stance
Uri Attack (2016):
Terrorist attack on an Indian Army camp in Uri, J&K. India responded with "surgical strikes" across the LoC.
Pulwama Attack (2019):
Suicide bombing targeting an Indian CRPF convoy in Pulwama, J&K, claimed by JeM. India responded with "Balakot Airstrike" (February 2019) on a JeM camp in Pakistan, escalating tensions significantly.
India's Stance: India maintains that cross-border terrorism is the primary obstacle to improving bilateral relations and demands concrete, verifiable action from Pakistan against terrorist groups operating from its soil.
4.1.5: Bilateral Engagements and CBMs
Composite Dialogue
A comprehensive dialogue process initiated in 1997 covering eight issues (peace & security, Kashmir, Siachen, etc.). Often interrupted due to terror attacks.
Track-II Diplomacy
Unofficial dialogue channels involving academics, journalists, retired diplomats, and civil society members from both sides. Aims to build understanding outside formal government channels.
Kartarpur Corridor (2019)
A visa-free corridor connecting Dera Baba Nanak shrine in India to Gurdwara Darbar Sahib in Kartarpur, Pakistan. A significant people-to-people initiative, demonstrating religious diplomacy.
Indus Waters Treaty (1960)
A water-sharing treaty brokered by the World Bank, considered one of the most successful water-sharing treaties globally.
Allocation:
Allotted eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) to India, and western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) to Pakistan.
Significance:
Has survived multiple wars. Occasional disputes over dam projects on western rivers (e.g., Kishenganga, Ratle) arise and are resolved through the Permanent Indus Commission or arbitration.
Other CBMs
Measures to reduce tensions and build trust, including military hotline communications, exchange of civilian prisoners, cultural exchanges (though limited).
4.1.6: Economic and Cultural Ties
Trade Barriers
Bilateral trade remains significantly below potential due to political tensions, non-tariff barriers, and Pakistan's reluctance to grant MFN status to India (which it withdrew after Pulwama).
Informal Trade:
A significant amount of trade occurs via third countries (e.g., Dubai) or informally, suggesting unmet demand.
People-to-People & Cultural Contacts
Contacts are severely restricted due to visa restrictions, security concerns, and political tensions.
However, cultural commonalities (language, food, music, cinema) exist. Shared historical, linguistic (Urdu, Punjabi), and cinematic (Bollywood) traditions are often overshadowed by political antagonism.
4.1.7: China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)
Definition
A flagship project of China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). It is a collection of infrastructure projects that aims to connect China's Xinjiang province to Pakistan's Gwadar Port on the Arabian Sea, through a network of highways, railways, and pipelines.
Implications for India
Prelims-ready Notes
- Partition: Radcliffe Line (1947). Princely States: Kashmir (Hari Singh, 1947-48 War, LoC), Junagadh (plebiscite), Hyderabad (Operation Polo 1948).
- Kashmir Dispute:
- Wars: 1947-48.
- UN Resolutions: Called for plebiscite & demilitarization.
- Simla Agreement (1972): Bilateralism, LoC.
- Article 370 Abrogation (Aug 5, 2019): J&K, Ladakh as UTs. India's internal affair.
- Major Wars:
- 1947-48: Kashmir.
- 1965: Kashmir, Rann of Kutch.
- 1971: Bangladesh Liberation War (India's decisive win, Bangladesh created).
- Kargil (1999): Pakistani infiltration, India's Operation Vijay. First nuclear-era conflict.
- Cross-border Terrorism:
- Non-State Actors: LeT, JeM, HM.
- FATF: Combats terror financing. Pakistan was on Grey List (removed Oct 2022).
- Incidents: Uri (2016, surgical strikes), Pulwama (2019, Balakot airstrike).
- Bilateral Engagements:
- Composite Dialogue (1997): 8 issues, often interrupted.
- Track-II Diplomacy: Unofficial channels.
- Kartarpur Corridor (2019): Religious diplomacy.
- Indus Waters Treaty (1960): Water sharing (World Bank brokered), survived wars.
- Economic/Cultural: Limited trade due to political tensions. People-to-people restricted.
- CPEC (China-Pakistan Economic Corridor):
- Flagship of China's BRI. Connects Xinjiang to Gwadar (Arabian Sea).
- Implications for India: Sovereignty (Passes through PoK - Gilgit-Baltistan), China's strategic access, Pakistan's potential debt trap, Strategic Encirclement.
Summary Table: Key Aspects
| Aspect | Key Issues/Events | Significance/Impact for India |
|---|---|---|
| Partition Legacy | Radcliffe Line, Princely States (Kashmir) | Root cause of enduring disputes, unresolved borders |
| Kashmir Dispute | 1947-48 War, LoC, UN Res, Article 370 Abrogation | Core of bilateral tension, sovereignty dispute |
| Major Conflicts | 1965, 1971 (Bangladesh), Kargil (1999) | Tested security, defined regional power dynamics, nuclear risks |
| Cross-border Terrorism | LeT, JeM, Uri, Pulwama, FATF | Primary hurdle to normalcy, constant security threat |
| Bilateral Engagements | Composite Dialogue, Track-II, Kartarpur, Indus Waters Treaty | Limited progress due to trust deficit, but some CBMs work |
| Economic/Cultural Ties | Trade barriers, visa restrictions | Severely constrained, potential largely unrealized |
| CPEC | Gwadar Port, passes through PoK, Debt Trap concern | Violation of sovereignty, strategic encirclement, economic challenge |
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
The Kashmir Dispute: A Complex Gordian Knot
- Historical Roots: Traced back to Maharaja Hari Singh's accession, tribal invasion, and 1947-48 war, leading to LoC.
- Legal/Political Dimensions: India's stance (accession final, PoK illegally occupied, Simla Agreement for bilateral resolution). Pakistan's stance (plebiscite as per UN resolutions, self-determination).
- Abrogation of Article 370: India views it as an internal constitutional matter for integration and development. Pakistan views it as a violation of international law and a demographic change attempt. This further entrenched differences.
- Human Rights Concerns: International scrutiny on human rights situation in J&K, often used by Pakistan to internationalize the issue.
- Terrorism: Kashmir remains a focal point for cross-border terrorism, complicating any peaceful resolution efforts.
- Conclusion: The dispute is multifaceted, involving historical claims, legal interpretations, geopolitical interests, and the aspirations of the Kashmiri people. It remains the core impediment to normalizing India-Pakistan relations.
Cross-border Terrorism: Primary Obstacle
- Nature: Pakistan's strategic use of non-state actors (LeT, JeM) as instruments of foreign policy.
- Impact: Leads to major terror attacks (Mumbai 2008, Uri 2016, Pulwama 2019), forcing India to adopt a "no tolerance" approach.
- India's Response: From strategic restraint to "surgical strikes" (2016) and "Balakot airstrike" (2019), demonstrating a shift towards more proactive deterrence.
- International Pressure: FATF's role in pressing Pakistan on terror financing, international community's recognition of Pakistan's role in harboring terrorists.
- Implications for Dialogue: India maintains that "dialogue and terror cannot go hand in hand," making meaningful dialogue impossible until concrete action.
CPEC: Geopolitical Game Changer with Dire Implications
- Strategic Imperative: For China, direct route to Arabian Sea, diversifying energy routes, enhancing BRI. For Pakistan, infrastructure development and economic opportunities.
- Sovereignty Violation: India's primary concern, as CPEC passes through Gilgit-Baltistan (PoK), which India claims.
- Strategic Encirclement: Seen as part of China's "String of Pearls" strategy, extending its influence in India's immediate neighborhood and the Indian Ocean.
- Debt Trap Diplomacy: Concerns over Pakistan's growing debt to China, potentially increasing Beijing's leverage.
- Regional Instability: Deepening China-Pakistan axis could exacerbate regional tensions and contribute to an arms race.
- Conclusion: CPEC is a significant strategic challenge for India, necessitating a multi-faceted response.
Indus Waters Treaty: Beacon of Cooperation (and challenges)
- Historical Success: Remarkably survived multiple wars (1965, 1971, Kargil), demonstrating the enduring power of a robust, third-party brokered treaty.
- Mechanisms: Permanent Indus Commission (PIC) for routine issues, and arbitration for serious disputes (e.g., Kishenganga, Ratle hydroelectric projects).
- Recent Challenges: India recently (2023) issued a notice to Pakistan seeking modifications, citing Pakistan's objections to hydroelectric projects and failure of PIC to resolve issues.
- Significance for India: Critical for India's water security in Kashmir and Punjab.
- Conclusion: A testament to potential for cooperation, but recent developments highlight need for continued vigilance and effective dispute resolution.
Current Affairs & Recent Developments (Last 1 Year)
India's Notice on Indus Waters Treaty (Jan 2023)
India sought modifications to the treaty, citing Pakistan's "intransigence" over resolution of disputes concerning hydroelectric projects. Signals India's intent to review aspects if issues are not resolved. (Source: MEA Statement, January 2023).
Continued CPEC Progress and Debt Concerns
China continues to push for CPEC's second phase despite Pakistan's economic challenges. IMF/World Bank flag Pakistan's high debt vulnerability to China. (Source: IMF, World Bank Debt Reports; Dawn newspaper).
FATF Grey List Removal (Oct 2022)
Pakistan was removed from FATF's 'grey list' after four years, acknowledging progress in addressing terror financing. India remains vigilant about concrete action on ground. (Source: FATF Plenary Outcomes, October 2022).
Cross-LoC Trade Suspended (since 2019)
Trade across the Line of Control in Kashmir remains suspended since April 2019, impacting local livelihoods and limiting people-to-people contact. Resumption contingent on improved security.
Lack of Dialogue
Formal high-level bilateral dialogue remains stalled due to India's consistent stance on "terrorism and talks don't go hand in hand," despite occasional gestures.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Prelims MCQs:
1. It was fought between India and Pakistan.
2. It primarily involved infiltration by Pakistani forces into Indian territory in Kargil.
3. India's operation to push back the infiltrators was named 'Operation Vijay'.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (d)
Hint: All statements accurately describe the Kargil War.
They are related to:
(a) India's space program
(b) India's counter-terrorism operations against Pakistan
(c) Border disputes between India and China
(d) Joint military exercises with friendly countries
Answer: (b)
Hint: Both refer to Indian military responses to cross-border terrorism originating from Pakistan.
1. It is an intergovernmental organization that develops and promotes policies to combat money laundering and terrorist financing.
2. India is a member of the FATF.
3. It publishes the 'Global Financial Stability Report'.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b)
Hint: FATF is crucial in addressing terror financing that supports non-state actors operating against India from Pakistan.
Mains Questions:
Direction:
Define cross-border terrorism and its sources (LeT, JeM). Discuss India's strategies (proactive deterrence like surgical/Balakot strikes, diplomatic isolation of Pakistan, financial counter-terrorism through FATF). Role of international cooperation (intelligence sharing, UNSC resolutions, international pressure on Pakistan).
Direction:
While about NSG, the Pakistan context is crucial. Discuss India's clean record and arguments. Highlight challenges (NPT non-signatory status, consensus rule, China's opposition, and Pakistan's counter-bid).
Direction:
Define CPEC and its objectives for China/Pakistan. Analyze implications for India: sovereignty violation (PoK), strategic encirclement, debt trap for Pakistan, regional power balance shift. Discuss how India perceives and responds to this challenge.
Trend Analysis (Last 10 Years)
UPSC's questioning on India-Pakistan relations has consistently focused on security, conflict, and the Kashmir dispute, with an increasing emphasis on cross-border terrorism and geopolitical implications of regional projects.
Prelims:
- Earlier: Might have included more factual questions about historical events (e.g., specific dates of wars or treaties).
- Current Trend: Questions are increasingly conceptual and directly linked to recent events. Strong focus on India's response to cross-border terrorism (e.g., surgical strikes, Balakot). Questions delve into implications of projects like CPEC and role of international bodies like FATF.
Mains:
- Earlier: Could ask for a general overview of the Kashmir dispute or a historical account of wars.
- Current Trend: Questions demand analytical depth, critical evaluation, and contemporary relevance. Expected to analyze centrality of cross-border terrorism, geopolitical significance of CPEC, role of international actors, and integrate current affairs heavily.
Overall: UPSC seeks candidates who understand the historical baggage, persistent security challenges, and complex geopolitical landscape, with a focus on India's proactive responses.
Original MCQs for Prelims
(a) The United Nations
(b) The World Bank
(c) The International Court of Justice
(d) The Commonwealth of Nations
Answer: (b)
Explanation: The Indus Waters Treaty was brokered by the World Bank, and its success is often cited as a rare example of cooperation between the two rival nations.
(a) India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway
(b) Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project
(c) China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)
(d) Chabahar Port Development Project
Answer: (c)
Explanation: The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) passes through Gilgit-Baltistan, a part of Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK), which India claims as its integral territory, leading to India's strong and consistent objections. The other projects are India-led connectivity initiatives.
Original Descriptive Questions for Mains
Key Points/Structure:
- Introduction: Acknowledge the shared history and potential, but immediately highlight the deep-seated mistrust and antagonism.
- Core Reasons for Impasse: Kashmir Dispute, Cross-border Terrorism (Pakistan's use of non-state actors, India's "no talks with terror" stance), Trust Deficit, Asymmetry of Power, Military-Industrial Complex in Pakistan, China-Pakistan Nexus.
- Possible Pathways for a Constructive Future (with caveats): Pakistan's Action on Terrorism, Consistent Dialogue (if trust is built), Trade and Connectivity (expanding Kartarpur model, liberalizing visas), Track-II Diplomacy, Regional Cooperation (revitalizing SAARC), Role of International Community.
- Conclusion: The path to normalcy is arduous, contingent on Pakistan's fundamental shift away from terrorism and a willingness to engage in good faith.
Key Points/Structure:
- Introduction: Briefly state the action (abrogation, reorganization) and India's stated position (internal constitutional matter).
- Implications for India-Pakistan Relations: Strong Condemnation by Pakistan (unilateral, illegal), Diplomatic Downgrade, Increased Tensions, Reduced Dialogue Prospects, Complicated Kashmir's Future.
- Responses from Key International Actors: UN (concern, no formal resolution), China (supported Pak), US (initially concerned, later accepted India's stance), Russia (backed India), OIC (strong statements, limited action), EU/UK (concerns, calls for dialogue), Global South (respected sovereignty).
- India's Diplomatic Counter-Offensive: Emphasized internal matter, highlighted benefits for J&K, focused on countering terrorism, showcased normalcy.
- Conclusion: Profoundly impacted India-Pakistan relations, raising tensions. India largely succeeded in containing international fallout to rhetorical level, but remains a significant point of contention with Pakistan.