An Overview
Miniature paintings are small-scale, highly detailed works of art, typically executed on perishable materials like palm leaves, paper, cloth, or ivory. In India, this art form flourished from ancient times, reaching its zenith during the medieval period under various regional kingdoms and imperial courts.
These paintings served diverse purposes, from illustrating religious manuscripts and epic narratives to depicting courtly life, portraits, hunting scenes, and capturing the beauty of nature. The evolution of Indian miniature painting is marked by a fascinating interplay of indigenous styles, Persian influences, and later, European aesthetics, leading to the development of distinct schools like Pala, Apabhramsha, Sultanate, Mughal, Deccani, Rajasthani, and Pahari, each with unique characteristics and thematic preoccupations.
Evolution Timeline
Pre-Mughal Era (8th - 15th Century CE)
Foundation of manuscript illustration. Key schools: Pala (Buddhist, Eastern India), Apabhramsha (Jain, Western India), and early Sultanate styles.
Sultanate Period (15th - Early 16th Century CE)
Bridge to Mughal style. Synthesis of indigenous and Persian elements. Early use of paper.
Mughal School (16th - 18th Century CE)
Zenith of imperial patronage. Fusion of Persian and Indian styles. Evolution under Akbar, Jahangir (Golden Age), and Shah Jahan. Decline under Aurangzeb leading to dispersal of artists.
Deccani Schools (16th - 19th Century CE)
Flourished in Deccan Sultanates (Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda, Hyderabad). Unique blend of Persian, Vijayanagara, and later Mughal influences. Tanjore school with distinct relief work.
Rajasthani/Rajput Schools (16th - 19th Century CE)
Developed parallel to Mughals in Rajput courts. Strong indigenous character, devotional and romantic themes (Krishna Lila, Ragamala). Schools like Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Kishangarh.
Pahari Schools (17th - 19th Century CE)
Emerged in Himalayan foothills. Lyrical beauty, delicate lines, romantic sensibility. Basohli (bold), Guler (transition), Kangra (zenith of refinement).
Later Regional Traditions (18th - 19th Century CE)
Further diversification with provincial Mughal styles (Awadh, Murshidabad) and Sikh paintings, as patronage diffused.
4.4.1: Early Miniature Traditions (Pre-Mughal)
These traditions primarily focused on illustrating manuscripts and paved the way for the later flourishing of diverse regional styles.
Pala School (Eastern)
Period: 8th to 12th Century CE.
Patronage: Pala rulers, who were patrons of Buddhism and great monastic establishments like Nalanda, Vikramshila, and Odantapuri.
Medium: Primarily palm leaf manuscripts and occasionally cloth (e.g., Prajnaparamita and Pancharaksha).
Themes: Mostly Buddhist deities (Mahayana Buddhism) and scenes from the Jataka tales. Also Hindu deities were depicted.
Characteristics:
- Sinuous, elegant lines and graceful figures, reminiscent of Ajanta murals.
- Limited colour palette: Primary colours like red, blue, black, white, and yellow.
- Stylized representation of trees and flowers.
- Figures often depicted with a third eye and round faces.
- Influence of Nepalese and Tibetan art is discernible.
Examples: Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita (Perfection of Wisdom Sutra in 8000 verses), Pancharaksha. Many of these manuscripts were exported to Nepal and Tibet.
Apabhramsha/Western Indian School
Period: 11th to 15th Century CE.
Patronage: Primarily Jain patrons and wealthy merchants of Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Medium: Palm leaf initially, later paper became popular from the 14th century onwards.
Themes: Predominantly Jain religious texts (e.g., Kalpasutra, Kalakacharya Katha). Later, Hindu themes (e.g., Bhagavata Purana, Gita Govinda) and secular themes also emerged.
Characteristics:
- Strong, angular lines and sharp features.
- Prominent bulging eyes extending beyond the outline of the face.
- Pointed noses and double chin.
- Limited perspective, flat compositions.
- Bright and contrasting colours like red, blue, green, and liberal use of gold.
- Figures often depicted with conventionalized gestures.
- Lack of naturalism and movement in figures.
Examples: Kalpasutra, Kalakacharya Katha, Balagopalastuti, Devi Mahatmya.
Sultanate Period Paintings
Period: 15th to early 16th Century CE.
Patronage: Various regional Sultanates (e.g., Malwa Sultanate in Mandu, Sharqi Dynasty in Jaunpur, Delhi Sultanate).
Influences: Marked by a synthesis of indigenous Indian artistic traditions and Persian influences (Islamic art forms). This period acts as a bridge to the Mughal style.
Themes: Illustrated manuscripts of Persian romances (Hamzanama - early version), Indian epics, and poetic works.
Characteristics:
- Introduced elements of Persian calligraphy and decorative motifs.
- Retained some angularity and bright colours of the Apabhramsha style.
- Figures became slightly less rigid, with some attempts at modelling.
- Early use of paper for illustrations.
Examples: Nimatnama (Book of Delights) from Mandu (Malwa Sultanate) - shows blend of indigenous and Persian styles. Lodi Khuladar Style (Delhi, Jaunpur) - characterized by strong outline and simple composition. Early versions of Hamzanama (pre-Akbar).
Summary: Early Miniature Traditions
| Feature | Pala School (Eastern) | Apabhramsha/Western Indian School | Sultanate Period Paintings |
|---|---|---|---|
| Period | 11th-12th C. | 11th-15th C. | 15th-early 16th C. |
| Region | Bengal, Bihar, Nepal | Gujarat, Rajasthan | Mandu, Jaunpur, Delhi |
| Medium | Palm leaf, occasionally cloth | Palm leaf, later Paper | Paper |
| Themes | Buddhist (Mahayana), Jataka Tales | Jain texts (Kalpasutra), Hindu, Secular | Persian romances, Indian epics, Poetry |
| Key Traits | Sinuous lines, graceful figures, limited palette | Angular, bulging eyes, pointed nose, bright colours, use of gold | Synthesis of Indigenous & Persian, calligraphy, some modelling |
| Examples | Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita | Kalpasutra, Kalakacharya Katha | Nimatnama (Mandu), Lodi Khuladar style |
4.4.2: Mughal School of Painting
The Mughal school represents a unique fusion of Persian Safavid style with indigenous Indian artistic traditions, evolving under imperial patronage to become one of the most celebrated periods of Indian painting.
Persian & Indigenous Foundation
The foundation was laid by Persian masters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad, bringing refined Safavid style. Indian artists contributed knowledge of local flora, fauna, costume, and narrative, leading to a dynamic synthesis.
Themes & Evolution
Shift from religious to secular themes: court life, historical events, portraiture, hunting, flora & fauna. Each emperor significantly shaped the style.
Evolution by Ruler
Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556)
During his exile in Persia, Humayun encountered Persian miniature painting and invited Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad to join his court. They initiated the first major illustrated manuscript, the Hamzanama, marking the genesis of the Mughal school.
Initial works still heavily influenced by Persian elements, but with a gradual introduction of Indian elements.
Akbar (1556-1605) - The Founder
Akbar was the true founder. He established a vast imperial atelier (Karkhana) with hundreds of artists (both Hindu and Muslim) under Persian masters.
Key Features:
- Large-scale Projects: Hamzanama (completed), Tutinama, Akbarnama (history), Razmnama (Mahabharata).
- Dynamism and Naturalism: Depicted action, movement, psychological depth. Realistic animals, birds, landscapes.
- Focus on Historical Narratives and Portraits: Documenting real events and capturing individual likenesses.
- Vibrant colours, bold compositions, three-dimensionality.
- European Influence: Early appearance of perspective, chiaroscuro.
Jahangir (1605-1627) - Zenith
Jahangir was a keen connoisseur, possessing an excellent eye for detail. This period is the golden age of Mughal painting.
Key Features:
- Refinement and Realism: Shift to individual portraiture, natural history studies, refined, detailed compositions.
- Highly realistic portraits and scientifically accurate nature studies (Ustad Mansur for birds/animals).
- Lavish Marginal Decorations: Intricate borders.
- More pronounced European influence.
Key Artists: Ustad Mansur, Abul Hasan, Bishandas.
Shah Jahan (1628-1658)
Continued refinement, but style became more formal, rigid, and less dynamic.
Key Features:
- Lavish use of gold and silver.
- Focus on stately court scenes, grand ceremonies, architectural depictions, royal portraits.
- Naturalism declined slightly, emphasis on decorative elements.
Aurangzeb (1658-1707) & Decline
Aurangzeb was less interested in art. Patronage declined significantly, leading to the dispersal of court artists to provincial courts (Rajput, Awadh, Murshidabad).
Brief revival under Muhammad Shah 'Rangila', but lacked earlier vigour. This dispersal contributed to the flourishing of regional schools.
Salient Features of Mughal Painting
Fine Brushwork & Intricate Detail
Minute detailing in every aspect, from facial features to fabric patterns.
Realism & Naturalism
Strong emphasis on realistic portrayal of figures, animals, and plants, especially under Jahangir.
Rich Colours & Portraiture
Vibrant mineral and vegetable colours, often contrasting. Portraiture was a hallmark, capturing likeness and personality.
Court Scenes & Calligraphy
Documentation of darbars, ceremonies, battles. Exquisite calligraphy often part of the aesthetic.
Summary: Mughal School of Painting (Evolution)
| Ruler | Period | Key Characteristics | Notable Works/Artists |
|---|---|---|---|
| Humayun | 1530-40, 55-56 | Introduced Persian masters; genesis of Mughal school. | Hamzanama (begun) |
| Akbar | 1556-1605 | Established Karkhana; grand narratives, dynamism, naturalism, early portraits, synthesis of styles. | Hamzanama, Tutinama, Akbarnama, Razmnama; Mir Sayyid Ali, Abdus Samad |
| Jahangir | 1605-1627 | Zenith; refinement, realism, exquisite portraiture, nature studies, elaborate marginal decorations. | Jahangirnama; Ustad Mansur (birds/animals), Abul Hasan (portraits), Bishandas |
| Shah Jahan | 1628-1658 | Formal, static, lavish use of gold, architectural settings, court scenes. | |
| Aurangzeb | 1658-1707 | Decline of imperial patronage, dispersal of artists. |
4.4.3: Deccani Schools of Painting
The Deccani schools flourished in the Deccan Sultanates, developing a unique style distinct from both the indigenous Northern traditions and the Mughal school, while absorbing influences from various sources.
Diverse Influences
Early Persian and Ottoman Turkish, indigenous Vijayanagara, later Mughal (post-Aurangzeb dispersal), and European elements due to trade.
Key Characteristics
Rich and brilliant colours, sensuous forms, lyrical and romantic themes, unique ethnic types, distinct costumes and landscapes.
Prominent Deccani Schools
Ahmednagar
- Patronage: Nizam Shahi dynasty.
- Features: Vibrant, rich colours; sensuous & elegant female figures; influence of North Indian costume.
- Example: Tarif-i-Hussain Shahi.
Bijapur
- Patronage: Adil Shahi dynasty (Ali Adil Shah I, Ibrahim Adil Shah II).
- Features: Highly lyrical, romantic; rich & brilliant colours, extensive gold; tall, slender figures.
- Example: Nujum-ul-Ulum (Stars of Science).
Golconda
- Patronage: Qutb Shahi dynasty.
- Features: Rich, luminous colours; focus on portraiture; Persian & European influence in landscape/architecture.
- Example: "Lady with Myna Bird."
Hyderabad
- Patronage: Nizams of Hyderabad.
- Features: Continuation of Deccani with increasing Mughal influence; delicate brushwork, softer colours.
Tanjore (Thanjavur)
- Patronage: Maratha rulers, Nayakas.
- Unique Style: Differs in medium/technique.
- Features: Use of gold foil, glass beads, semi-precious stones (embossed, 3D effect); iconic Hindu deities on wood/cloth.
Summary: Deccani Schools of Painting
| School | Period | Key Characteristics | Examples/Notable Works |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ahmednagar | 16th C. | Vibrant colors, sensuous female figures, North Indian costume influence. | Tarif-i-Hussain Shahi |
| Bijapur | 16th-17th C. | Lyrical, romantic, rich gold usage, tall slender figures. | Nujum-ul-Ulum, Portraits of Ibrahim Adil Shah II |
| Golconda | 17th C. | Luminous colours, focus on portraiture, Persian/European influence. | "Lady with Myna Bird" |
| Hyderabad | 18th-19th C. | Continuation of Deccani with increasing Mughal influence. | Court scenes, portraits |
| Tanjore | 17th-19th C. | Unique use of gold foil, glass beads, semi-precious stones; iconic deities on wood/cloth. | Deities like Krishna, Rama, Ganesha |
4.4.4: Rajasthani/Rajput Schools of Painting
These schools developed in the Rajput courts of Rajasthan, parallel to the Mughal school. While absorbing some Mughal techniques, they maintained a distinct indigenous character, deeply rooted in local traditions, folklore, and religious beliefs.
Core Characteristics
Vibrant colours, emotional narratives, stylized figures (large eyes, pointed noses), flat compositions, and a strong storytelling element.
Dominant Themes
Predominantly religious and devotional: Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata Purana (Krishna Lila), Nayaka-Nayika Bheda, Ragamala paintings (visual interpretations of musical modes), Baramasa (depiction of seasons and emotions).
Prominent Rajput Schools
Mewar
- Early, conservative; bold & bright colours (red, yellow).
- Direct expression, simplicity; sturdy figures.
- Example: Chawand Ragamala (Sahibdin).
Bundi
- Rich colours, lush green landscapes, detailed nature.
- Delicate facial features; strong Mughal influence.
- Example: Bundi Ragamala.
Kota
- Specialization in dynamic hunting (shikar) scenes.
- Bold brushwork, powerful animal depictions.
Kishangarh
- Famous for Bani Thani by Nihal Chand.
- Idealized female beauty (elongated faces, lotus eyes, pointed noses).
- Lyrical, romantic, Radha-Krishna themes.
Jaipur
- Strong Mughal influence; large-sized paintings.
- Court scenes, portraits, frescoes.
Bikaner
- Significant Mughal influence (artists returned from imperial workshops).
- Refined style, emphasis on portraiture.
Marwar
- Bold, vibrant style; strong folk elements.
- Themes from local folklore, Dhola Maru.
Malwa
- Simplified compositions, flat colours, archaic style.
- Illustrated manuscripts like Rasikapriya.
Summary: Rajasthani/Rajput Schools of Painting
| School | Period | Key Characteristics | Notable Works/Artists |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mewar | 17th-18th C. | Early, conservative, bold colours, direct expression. | Chawand Ragamala (Sahibdin) |
| Bundi | 17th-19th C. | Rich colours, lush landscapes, detailed nature, delicate features. | Bundi Ragamala |
| Kota | 18th-19th C. | Specialization in dynamic hunting (shikar) scenes. | |
| Kishangarh | 18th C. | Idealized female beauty (Bani Thani), elongated features, lyrical Radha-Krishna themes. | Bani Thani (Nihal Chand) |
| Jaipur | 18th-19th C. | Strong Mughal influence, large paintings, court scenes. | |
| Bikaner | 17th-19th C. | Mughal influence (artists), refined style, portraiture. | Ali Raza, Hasan Raza |
| Marwar | 17th-19th C. | Bold, folk elements, local folklore, Dhola Maru. | |
| Malwa | 17th C. | Simplified compositions, flat colours, archaic. | Rasikapriya |
4.4.5: Pahari Schools of Painting
The Pahari schools developed in the Himalayan foothills, characterized by lyrical beauty, delicate lines, and a romantic sensibility, often influenced by the migrating Mughal artists.
Aesthetic Qualities
Lyrical and delicate, romantic themes (Radha-Krishna), subtle harmonious colours, exquisite lines. Influenced by Basohli's boldness transitioning to Kangra's refinement.
Thematic Focus
Krishna Lila, Gita Govinda, Bhagavata Purana, Nayika Bheda, Baramasa, portraits. Picturesque Himalayan landscapes as backdrop.
Prominent Pahari Schools
Basohli
- Early, distinctive Pahari school.
- Bold, intense colours; strong, simple lines; expressive faces.
- Unique use of beetle-wing cases for iridescent effect.
- Example: Rasamanjari series by Devidasa.
Guler
- Transition from Basohli to Kangra.
- Delicate lines, soft, cool colours; naturalism.
- Lyrical quality (Guler-Kangra Kalam).
- Artists: Pandit Seu, Nainsukh, Manaku.
Kangra
- Zenith of Pahari painting.
- Delicate, refined style; exquisite brushwork.
- Lyrical romanticism, harmonious colours (cool blues, greens).
- Focus on female beauty, naturalistic landscapes.
- Patron: Raja Sansar Chand.
Chamba
- Influence of both Basohli and Guler-Kangra.
- Distinct local features in costumes and facial types.
Garhwal
- Prominent artist Molaram.
- Soft colours, lyrical themes, distinctive facial types.
- Blended Mughal, Kangra, and local folk styles.
Summary: Pahari Schools of Painting
| School | Period | Key Characteristics | Notable Works/Artists |
|---|---|---|---|
| Basohli | 17th C. | Early, bold, intense colours, strong lines, beetle-wing cases. | Rasamanjari (Devidasa) |
| Guler | Mid-18th C. | Transition, delicate lines, soft colours, naturalism, lyrical. | Pandit Seu, Nainsukh, Manaku |
| Kangra | Late 18th-early 19th C. | Zenith, delicate, refined, lyrical romanticism, harmonious colours, minute detail, female beauty. | Gita Govinda, Bihari Satsai; Raja Sansar Chand |
| Chamba | Basohli and Guler-Kangra influence, local features. | ||
| Garhwal | Soft colours, lyrical themes, distinctive facial types. | Molaram |
4.4.6: Other Regional Miniature Traditions
Besides the major schools, several smaller regional centres developed their own distinct miniature painting styles, often as a result of dispersed Mughal artists or independent local patronage.
Oudh/Awadh School (18th-19th Centuries)
- Patronage: Nawabs of Awadh.
- Features: Continuation of Mughal tradition, more formal and decadent. Grand court scenes, portraits, erotic themes. European influence (perspective, shading).
Sikh Paintings (19th Century)
- Patronage: Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
- Features: Influenced by late Mughal and Pahari styles. Portraits of Sikh Gurus, court/genre scenes, military activities.
Murshidabad School (18th Century)
- Patronage: Nawabs of Bengal.
- Features: Provincial Mughal style, simpler compositions, less vibrant. Scenes of daily life, portraits, mythological themes.
Conclusion & Significance
Miniature painting in India is a vibrant testimony to its rich artistic heritage, offering a kaleidoscopic view of historical events, social customs, religious beliefs, and aesthetic sensibilities across centuries. It evolved through a dynamic process of synthesis, assimilating diverse influences while retaining its unique regional flavours.
The meticulous craftsmanship, intricate detailing, and profound narratives within these small-scale works continue to fascinate art historians and connoisseurs alike. The decline of royal patronage in the 19th century led to a decline in this art form, though some traditions persist even today.
Significance:
- Cultural Documentation: Invaluable historical documents, providing insights into court life, costumes, customs, flora, fauna, and architecture.
- Artistic Innovation: Showcases continuous artistic innovation, leading to unique blends of Persian, indigenous, and European styles.
- Religious & Literary Expressions: Crucial role in illustrating religious texts and literary works, making complex narratives accessible.
- Aesthetic Value: Renowned for their delicate beauty, precision, and emotional depth.
- Soft Power: Represents a significant aspect of India's cultural heritage on the global stage.
Way Forward:
- Preservation and Conservation: Continued efforts by institutions for scientific conservation.
- Research and Documentation: Further research into lesser-known regional schools and artists.
- Promotion and Awareness: Exhibitions, digital archives, and educational programs.
- Support for Contemporary Artists: Encourage and support artists keeping the tradition alive, often by adapting it to modern themes.
UPSC Prep: Key Insights
Prelims-ready Notes
Pala School: Buddhist, palm leaf, sinuous lines, Nalanda/Vikramshila, Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita.
Apabhramsha School: Jain, paper, bulging eyes, angular, bright colours, Kalpasutra.
Sultanate Painting: Bridge period, Persian influence. Nimatnama.
Mughal Painting:
- Origin: Persian masters Mir Sayyid Ali, Abdus Samad.
- Akbar: Karkhana, large projects (Hamzanama, Akbarnama), dynamism, naturalism.
- Jahangir: Zenith, realism, portraiture, nature studies (Ustad Mansur), elaborate borders.
- Shah Jahan: Formal, lavish gold, court scenes, architectural.
- Aurangzeb: Decline, dispersal of artists.
Deccani Schools: Blend of Persian, indigenous, Mughal.
- Ahmednagar: Sensuous figures, Tarif-i-Hussain Shahi.
- Bijapur: Lyrical, romantic, gold, Ibrahim Adil Shah II (Nujum-ul-Ulum).
- Golconda: Luminous colours, "Lady with Myna Bird."
- Tanjore: Unique gold foil, glass beads, semi-precious stones, iconic deities on wood/cloth.
Rajasthani Schools: Indigenous, emotional, vibrant colours, themes: Krishna Lila, Ragamala, Baramasa. Key examples: Mewar (Sahibdin), Bundi, Kota (hunting), Kishangarh (Bani Thani), Jaipur, Bikaner, Marwar, Malwa.
Pahari Schools: Lyrical, delicate, romantic, subtle colours, hill states. Key examples: Basohli (beetle-wing cases), Guler, Kangra (Raja Sansar Chand, Gita Govinda), Garhwal (Molaram).
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
Major Debates/Discussions:
- Indigenous vs. Foreign Influence: Dominance of Persian vs. Indian characteristics.
- Patronage and Decline: Link between royal patronage and art's flourishing/decline.
- Miniature as Historical Record: Art as vital socio-cultural document.
Historical/Long-term Trends:
- Evolution of Medium: Palm leaf to paper.
- Shift in Themes: Religious to secular, then back to religious/romantic.
- Stylistic Progression: Angular rigidity to naturalism to lyrical romanticism.
- Influence of European Art: Gradual assimilation of chiaroscuro, perspective.
- Role of Karkhanas/Ateliers.
Contemporary Relevance:
- Cultural Identity & Tourism: Strong symbol, attracts scholars/enthusiasts.
- Art Market: Significant international/domestic demand.
- Inspiration for Modern Artists.
- Conservation Challenges: Preservation from damage, illicit trade.
Recent Examples (India/World):
- National Museum, Delhi; V&A, Met Museum (significant collections).
- Periodic Exhibitions (e.g., "Sultans of Deccan India" at Met).
- Conservation Efforts (NRLC, Ministry of Culture).
- Digitalization Projects (National Museum, Google Arts & Culture).
UPSC Previous Year Questions
Prelims MCQs
UPSC Prelims 2021:
Q. With reference to Indian history, consider the following pairs:
- Dhanyakataka : Early Stupa
- Ganadharasala : Sculpture
- Sitannavasal : Cave painting
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans: (c)
Hint: Sittanavasal is famous for Jain frescoes/cave paintings, representing an early form of painting. Dhanyakataka is related to Amaravati stupa. Gandharasala is not a standard term for sculpture site.
UPSC Prelims 2018:
Q. Consider the following statements about the "Kangra School" of painting:
- It is a regional school that developed in the Himalayan foothill states.
- Its themes primarily revolved around Radha and Krishna and the Bhagavata Purana.
- It is characterized by bold lines and intense colours.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans: (a)
Hint: Kangra school is known for delicate and refined lines, and subtle colours, not bold lines and intense colours (which is more characteristic of Basohli).
Mains Questions
UPSC Mains 2019 (GS1):
Q. Elaborate on the differences between the Mughal and Rajput schools of painting.
Direction: Introduce both schools. Compare point-wise (Patronage, Themes, Style, Color Palette, Medium, Artists, Influence). Conclude by summarizing unique contributions.
UPSC Mains 2016 (GS1):
Q. Discuss the salient features of the Mughal paintings.
Direction: Introduce Mughal painting as a unique synthesis. Discuss salient features (Synthesis, Patronage-driven Evolution, Themes, Technical Aspects, Artists, Karkhanas). Conclude on legacy.
Practice Questions
Original MCQs for Prelims
Q. Which of the following statements about the "Tarif-i-Hussain Shahi" manuscript is/are correct?
- It is an illustrated work belonging to the Bijapur School of painting.
- It is characterized by the use of beetle-wing cases for enhancing colours.
- It features sensuous and elegant female figures reminiscent of Northern Indian styles.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b)
Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect (Ahmednagar). Statement 2 is incorrect (Basohli). Statement 3 is correct (Ahmednagar is known for this).
Q. With reference to Indian miniature painting, consider the following pairs:
- Molaram: Garhwal School
- Sahibdin: Kishangarh School
- Ustad Mansur: Shah Jahan Period
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (a)
Explanation: Pair 1 is correct. Pair 2 is incorrect (Sahibdin was Mewar; Nihal Chand was Kishangarh). Pair 3 is incorrect (Ustad Mansur was Jahangir's artist).
Original Descriptive Questions for Mains
Q. "The decline of imperial patronage often acts as a catalyst for artistic innovation and diversification." Examine this statement in the context of the evolution of Indian miniature paintings from the Mughal period to the emergence of regional schools. (15 marks, 250 words)
Key Points: Mughal zenith under strong patronage; Aurangzeb's decline leading to dispersal of artists; how migrating artists influenced Rajput, Pahari, and later Deccani schools; diversification of themes and styles.
Q. Analyse the commonalities and distinctions between the Deccani and Pahari schools of miniature painting. How do these styles reflect their respective geographical and cultural milieus? (10 marks, 150 words)
Key Points: Commonalities (post-Mughal, Mughal influence, romantic themes); Distinctions (regions, primary influences, stylistic features, specific examples); Reflection of milieu (cosmopolitan Deccan vs. serene Himalayas).