An Overview
Modern Indian painting emerged from a complex interplay of indigenous traditions, colonial influences, and a search for a distinct national identity. Beginning in the late 18th century with the patronage of European East India Company officials, Indian artists started incorporating Western techniques and perspectives.
This led to the academic realism championed by Raja Ravi Varma. As a reaction, the Bengal School of Art arose in the early 20th century, advocating for a revival of traditional Indian art forms and a rejection of Western dominance, embodying the Swadeshi spirit. Post-Independence, Indian art diversified significantly, with artists and groups like the Progressive Artists' Group embracing international modernism while grappling with an Indian aesthetic. This period saw a vibrant exploration of abstraction, figuration, and diverse contemporary trends, reflecting India's evolving socio-political landscape and its place in the global art scene.
Evolution Timeline
Late 18th - Mid 19th Century
Company Paintings: Indian artists blend miniature techniques with Western perspective for European patrons.
Late 19th - Early 20th Century
Academic Realism (Raja Ravi Varma): Introduction of Western oil painting techniques to Indian mythological themes, mass popularization.
Early 20th Century (c. 1905-1947)
Bengal School of Art: A nationalist reaction against Western academicism, advocating for a revival of traditional Indian art forms and a distinct national art identity.
Pre-Independence Individualists (Early-Mid 20th C.)
Artists like Rabindranath Tagore, Amrita Sher-Gil, and Gaganendranath Tagore explore unique, expressionistic, and avant-garde styles, foreshadowing future modernism.
Post-Independence (1940s onwards)
Progressive Artists' Group (PAG) & Others: Break from revivalism, embrace international modernism while seeking Indian sensibilities. Diverse explorations in abstraction, figuration, and contemporary trends.
4.6.1: Company Paintings / Kampani Kalam
Paintings produced by Indian artists for European patrons, primarily British East India Company officials. A transitional art form bridging traditional Indian miniature styles with nascent Western influences.
Period & Patronage
Late 18th to mid-19th Centuries. Patronized by European officers, traders, and their families seeking visual records of India.
Themes & Medium
Ethnographic documentation (life, customs), natural history (flora, fauna), architectural views, portraits. Often watercolour on paper or mica.
Key Characteristics:
- Blending of Styles: Combined Indian miniature techniques (fine lines, intricate details, vibrant colours) with Western elements (perspective, chiaroscuro, naturalism, larger formats).
- Generally lacked the finesse and emotional depth of earlier Mughal or Rajput miniatures.
Notable Offshoot: Patna Kalam
Region: Patna, Bihar.
Key Feature: Known for the 'fixed eye' style where the eye of the figure stares directly at the viewer. Figures were often drawn without sketching, directly with a brush.
Artists: Often came from families of displaced Mughal artists (e.g., Ghulam Ali Khan, Fakir Chand, Lallu Lal).
Significance: Provided a visual record of colonial India and marked the beginning of Western influence on Indian art.
4.6.2: Academic Realism (Raja Ravi Varma)
A pivotal figure who democratized art and made mythological narratives visually accessible, while simultaneously introducing Western academic conventions into the Indian art scene.
Key Figure & Style
Raja Ravi Varma (1848-1906) from Kerala. Largely self-taught in Western oil painting techniques. Famous for depicting Indian mythological and epic themes with a European academic realist style.
Blend of East & West
Successfully blended Indian subject matter (deities, queens) with European academic techniques (naturalism, three-dimensionality, chiaroscuro, linear perspective, anatomical accuracy).
Impact:
- Widespread Popularity: Immensely popular, especially after establishing a lithographic press in Mumbai (1894) for mass production. This made religious art accessible to common households.
- Standardization of Deities: His realistic portrayal of Hindu gods and goddesses became the standard iconography.
- Critique: Later criticized by the Bengal School for being imitative of Western styles and lacking "Indianness."
4.6.3: Bengal School of Art
A reaction against Western academic realism (like Raja Ravi Varma's style) and a manifestation of the Swadeshi spirit in art. It sought to revive Indian traditional art forms and create a distinct national art identity.
Period & Context
Early 20th Century (approx. 1905-1947). Emerged from the Swadeshi movement, aiming to reject colonial artistic dominance.
Founder & Philosophy
Abanindranath Tagore (1871-1951), who rejected oil painting and Western illusionistic techniques, advocating for an indigenous art.
Key Features & Style
Characteristics:
- Swadeshi Spirit: Aimed at creating a truly Indian art, distinct from colonial influences.
- Themes: Indian mythology, history, literature (Mahabharata, Ramayana, Buddhist legends, Mughal/Rajput life).
- Subtle Colours & Lyrical Quality: Muted, soft, ethereal colours and a poetic, romantic sensibility.
- Wash Technique: Popularized by Abanindranath (repeated application of thin layers of pigment, followed by washing for misty effect), inspired by Japanese/Chinese art.
- Rejection of Oil Painting Initially: Preferred watercolours and tempera.
- Influence from Ajanta, Mughal, and Rajput paintings.
- Idealistic and spiritual outlook.
Institutions & Notable Artists
Institutions:
- Government College of Art, Kolkata: Abanindranath Tagore transformed it into the hub of the Bengal School.
- Kala Bhavan, Shantiniketan: Established by Rabindranath Tagore, fostering a more individualistic approach.
Notable Artists:
- Abanindranath Tagore: Pioneer (Bharat Mata, The Passing of Shah Jahan).
- Nandalal Bose (1882-1966): Student of Abanindranath, known for simple, powerful style. Illustrated the Constitution of India.
- Asit Kumar Haldar: First Indian principal of Govt. College of Art and Craft, Lucknow.
- Jamini Roy (1887-1972): Later drew heavily from folk art (Kalighat paintings) for his bold, flat, simplified forms.
- Kshitindranath Majumdar: Lyrical, devotional paintings, Vaishnavite themes.
- M.A.R. Chughtai: Prominent from Lahore, distinctive Persianate style, delicate lines.
4.6.4: Individualists & Modern Trends (Pre-Independence)
Even during the Bengal School's dominance, some artists explored more individualistic paths, foreshadowing post-Independence modernism.
Rabindranath Tagore
- Unique, Expressionistic Style (started seriously in his 60s).
- Highly personal, intuitive, often unsettling works.
- Themes: Human faces, fantastic creatures, landscapes, abstract forms.
- Characteristics: Automatic drawing, cross-hatching, dark tones, expressionistic distortions.
Amrita Sher-Gil
- Hungarian-Indian artist, trained in Paris.
- Brilliantly blended European modernism (Post-Impressionism) with Indian themes and aesthetics.
- Themes: Lives of ordinary Indians, women, rural landscape, profound sensitivity.
- Characteristics: Bold colours, simplified forms, strong lines, deep emotional resonance.
- Often called "Indian Frida Kahlo." Notable Works: Three Girls, South Indian Villagers Going to Market.
Gaganendranath Tagore
- Brother of Abanindranath Tagore.
- One of the first Indian artists to experiment with Cubism and other avant-garde Western styles.
- Also known for satirical cartoons depicting Bengali society.
- Characteristics: Geometric forms, multiple perspectives, vibrant colours in Cubist works.
4.6.5: Post-Independence Art Groups & Movements
Post-Independence, Indian art witnessed a burst of energy, with artists seeking to forge new identities liberated from colonial legacies and nationalist constraints, often embracing international modernism.
Calcutta Group (1943)
- Precursor to PAG.
- Advocated for contemporary, international outlook, breaking from revivalist Bengal School.
- Members: Pradosh Dasgupta, Rathin Maitra, Nirode Mazumdar.
Progressive Artists' Group (PAG), Bombay (1947)
- Pivotal in shaping modern Indian art.
- Ideology: Broke from Bengal School's romantic idealism. Embraced international modernism (Cubism, Expressionism) with Indian sensibilities. Believed in artistic freedom.
- Key Members: F.N. Souza, M.F. Husain, S.H. Raza, K.H. Ara, H.A. Gade, S.K. Bakre.
- Impact: Democratized art, fostered individualistic expression, placed Indian modernism on international map.
Delhi Shilpi Chakra (1949)
- Formed by artists who migrated from Pakistan after partition.
- Aimed to provide a platform for free experimentation, fostering dialogue.
- Key Members: B.C. Sanyal, Kanwal Krishna, K.S. Kulkarni.
Group 1890 (1962)
- Key Figure: J. Swaminathan (ideologue).
- Advocated for an indigenous abstraction and a return to the roots of Indian aesthetic philosophy, rejecting both academic realism and some aspects of Western modernism.
Cholamandal Artists' Village (1966)
- Founded near Chennai (Madras) by K.C.S. Paniker.
- Sought to establish an Indian modernism rooted in tradition (tantric art, folk art, symbolism).
- India's first artists' village, fostering artistic freedom and collective livelihood.
4.6.6: Prominent Modern & Contemporary Artists
The post-independence era and subsequent decades saw a proliferation of individualistic styles and diverse trends. These artists continued to explore various facets of human experience, identity, and global concerns through their art.
Key Trends:
Abstract Art
- V.S. Gaitonde (minimalist abstraction)
- S.H. Raza (bindu, geometric abstraction)
- Ram Kumar (abstract landscapes)
Figurative Art
- Tyeb Mehta (falling figures, diagonal lines, violence)
- Manjit Bawa (mythological figures, vibrant, spiritual)
Pop Art & Social Commentary
- Bhupen Khakhar (narrative, homoerotic, social observation)
- Atul Dodiya (interdisciplinary, pop culture, personal)
Newer Mediums & Perspectives
- Installation Art & Digital Art (Subodh Gupta: steel utensils)
- Feminist Perspectives (Anjolie Ela Menon, Arpita Singh)
- Globalized Indian Art (international acclaim, Indian essence)
Conclusion & Significance
Modern Indian painting reflects a dynamic journey from colonial influence to a confident assertion of an independent, diverse, and globally relevant artistic voice. It encapsulates India's complex socio-political narrative, its cultural transitions, and its artists' relentless pursuit of self-expression. The evolution from Academic Realism to the nationalist revivalism of the Bengal School, and then to the diverse international modernism of post-Independence groups, mirrors India's own path.
Significance:
- National Identity: Defined and expressed Indian identity during colonial/post-colonial periods.
- Cultural Dialogue: Facilitated dialogue between Indian and global artistic traditions.
- Social Commentary: Powerful medium for artists to comment on realities.
- Global Recognition: Placed Indian art on the international map, works fetching significant prices.
- Diversification and Innovation: Continues to evolve, embracing new forms, mediums.
Way Forward:
- Support for Artists: Institutional support (NGMA, Lalit Kala Akademi) via grants, residencies.
- Art Education and Research: Promote critical studies, integrate into curricula.
- Public Access and Engagement: Digital platforms, outreach, public art.
- Art Market Development: Ethical practices, fair pricing, transparency.
- Conservation and Archiving: Prioritize conservation and archiving of works/lives.
- International Collaboration: Enhance global visibility.
UPSC Prep: Key Insights
Prelims-ready Notes
Company Paintings (18th-19th C.): Indian artists, European patrons, blend of Indian/Western, themes of Indian life/flora/fauna. Patna Kalam (fixed eye, direct brush).
Raja Ravi Varma (Late 19th-Early 20th C.): Academic Realism, oil paintings, mythological/epic themes, European style, lithographic press, standardized deity iconography.
Bengal School (Early 20th C.):
- Reaction: Against Western academic style, Swadeshi spirit, national identity.
- Founder: Abanindranath Tagore (wash technique, Bharat Mata).
- Features: Subtle colours, lyrical, Indian themes, rejection of oil initially.
- Artists: Nandalal Bose (Constitution art), Jamini Roy (folk art influence).
- Institutions: Govt. College of Art Kolkata, Kala Bhavan Shantiniketan.
Individualists (Pre-Independence):
- Rabindranath Tagore: Expressionistic, late bloomer, dark tones.
- Amrita Sher-Gil: Blended European modernism with Indian themes/aesthetics, "Indian Frida Kahlo."
- Gaganendranath Tagore: Cubist experiments, satirical cartoons.
Post-Independence Art Groups:
- Calcutta Group (1943): Precursor to PAG.
- Progressive Artists' Group (PAG), Bombay (1947): Broke from Bengal School, embraced international modernism. Key members: F.N. Souza, M.F. Husain, S.H. Raza.
- Delhi Shilpi Chakra (1949): B.C. Sanyal.
- Group 1890 (1962): J. Swaminathan (indigenous abstraction).
- Cholamandal Artists' Village (Madras Art Movement – 1966): K.C.S. Paniker (Indian modernism rooted in tradition).
Contemporary Trends: Abstract, figurative, pop, installation, digital. Artists like V.S. Gaitonde, Tyeb Mehta, Subodh Gupta.
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
Major Debates/Discussions:
- The "Authenticity" Debate: What is "authentic" Indian art (Ravi Varma vs. Bengal School).
- Patronage Shift: Royal/Colonial to Nationalist to Galleries.
- Tradition vs. Modernity: Persistent tension in modern Indian art.
Historical/Long-term Trends:
- From Imitation to Innovation: Overt Western influence to confident experimentation.
- Expansion of Themes: From documentation/mythology to personal expression/social critique.
- Formal Experimentation: Academic realism to wash, Cubism, abstraction, installation.
- Rise of Art Markets: Shift from patronage.
Contemporary Relevance/Impact:
- Global Art Scene: International recognition, high auction prices.
- Cultural Identity: Grappling with identity in a globalized world.
- Art as Investment: Growing Indian art market.
- Dialogue with Tradition: Contemporary artists reinterpreting past forms.
- Museums and Galleries: Crucial role in preservation and promotion.
Real-world/Recent Examples:
- Auctions: High-value sales for PAG artists (Raza, Husain, Souza, Mehta).
- India Art Fair (Delhi): Annual showcase of contemporary art.
- Biennales/Triennales: Indian artists' participation globally.
- Digitalization of Art: NGMA making collections accessible online.
UPSC Previous Year Questions
Prelims MCQs
UPSC Prelims 2018:
Q. Which one of the following is a very significant aspect of the "Champaran Satyagraha"?
(a) Gandhiji actively participated in the satyagraha movement.
(b) The ryots (cultivators) who were suffering due to the indigo cultivation joined the satyagraha movement.
(c) Raja Ravi Varma's paintings were used to spread awareness about the atrocities of the British government.
(d) Dr. Rajendra Prasad and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel joined Gandhiji for the first time.
Ans: (a) (and also b, d, but not c).
Hint: Raja Ravi Varma's paintings were primarily mythological and religious, not used for political activism in Champaran. This tests the purpose and themes of artists' works.
UPSC Prelims 2016:
Q. Consider the following statements about the Bengal School of Art:
- It was founded by Abanindranath Tagore.
- It was a reaction against the Western academic style of painting.
- It promoted the use of oil painting and realism.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans: (b)
Hint: Statement 3 is incorrect. The Bengal School specifically rejected oil painting and realism.
UPSC Prelims 2012:
Q. Consider the following statements:
- The artists of the Bengal School of Art focused on themes of Indian mythology and history.
- Nandalal Bose, a prominent artist of this school, was associated with the Indian freedom movement.
- Jamini Roy's art was heavily influenced by tribal and folk art forms.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans: (d)
Hint: All three statements are correct.
Mains Questions
UPSC Mains 2019 (GS1):
Q. Discuss the main objectives of the Bengal School of Art. How did it seek to achieve these objectives?
Direction: Introduce Bengal School. Detail its objectives (reaction to Western art, national identity, spiritual art, Swadeshi). Explain how it achieved them (Abanindranath's leadership, rejection of Western techniques, Indian inspirations, wash technique, thematic shift, institutions).
UPSC Mains 2017 (GS1):
Q. Compare and contrast the contributions of Raja Ravi Varma and Abanindranath Tagore to modern Indian painting.
Direction: Introduce both. Detail Raja Ravi Varma's contributions (academic realism, popularization, iconography). Detail Abanindranath's contributions (Bengal School, rejection of Western, revival, wash technique, nationalist themes). Provide point-wise comparison/contrast on technique, influence, purpose, legacy.
UPSC Mains 2016 (GS1):
Q. To what extent did the establishment of the British rule in India contribute to the decline of traditional Indian art forms?
Direction: Acknowledge traditional diversity. Discuss contributions to decline (patronage shift, Western aesthetics, technology, economic disruption, cultural bias). Briefly mention counterpoints (Company paintings, nationalist revival). Conclude on significant disruption.
Practice Questions
Original MCQs for Prelims
Q. Which of the following statements regarding the Progressive Artists' Group (PAG) is/are correct?
- It was founded in Calcutta immediately after India's independence.
- Its members sought to synthesize global modern art movements with Indian sensibilities.
- M.F. Husain and S.H. Raza were among its prominent founding members.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b)
Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect (founded in Bombay). Statements 2 and 3 are correct.
Q. Consider the following artists and their associated art movements/styles:
- Jamini Roy: Folk art influence
- V.S. Gaitonde: Minimalist Abstraction
- Tyeb Mehta: Cubist Experiments
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b)
Explanation: Pair 1 is correct. Pair 2 is correct. Pair 3 is incorrect (Gaganendranath Tagore is known for Cubist experiments; Tyeb Mehta for 'falling figures').
Original Descriptive Questions for Mains
Q. "The evolution of Modern Indian Painting reflects a continuous tension between national identity and global influences." Elaborate on this statement with suitable examples from various art movements and artists from the 19th and 20th centuries. (15 marks, 250 words)
Key Points: Introduction (dynamic field). Colonial Influence (Company, Ravi Varma). National Identity Assertion (Bengal School, Amrita Sher-Gil). Post-Independence Dialogue (PAG, Group 1890). Conclusion (constant negotiation).
Q. Critically assess the contributions of various art groups that emerged in Post-Independence India in shaping the trajectory of modern Indian painting. (10 marks, 150 words)
Key Points: Introduction (groups broke new ground). PAG (break from tradition, international modernism, individual freedom). Delhi Shilpi Chakra (post-partition context, experimentation). Group 1890 (indigenous abstraction). Cholamandal (Indian modernism in tradition, community model). Overall Impact (diversified, democratized, placed India on map).