Introduction: The Unbroken Lineage
Indian music, one of the world's oldest and most sophisticated musical traditions, boasts an unbroken lineage stretching back millennia. This foundational topic explores its profound antiquity and origins, tracing its roots to the Vedic period with the chanting of Samaveda and evidence from ancient texts and sculptures.
It then delves into the key ancient treatises on music such as Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra, Matanga's Brihaddeshi (which introduced the pivotal concept of Raga), and Sharangadeva's Sangeeta Ratnakara, a seminal text for both classical systems. The core of the topic lies in understanding the fundamental concepts that underpin Indian music, including Nada (sound), Shruti (microtones), Swara (notes), Raga (melodic framework), Tala (rhythmic cycle), and Laya (tempo), along with related concepts like Saptak, Alankar, Moorchhana, Grama, and Thaat/Mela. Finally, it examines the historical bifurcation into the two major systems: Hindustani and Carnatic music, highlighting the impact of Persian and Islamic influences in North India from the medieval period onwards.
Source: NCERT Class 11 - An Introduction to Indian Art, Nitin Singhania - Indian Art and Culture, D.P. Chattopadhyaya - History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Bonnie C. Wade - Thinking Musically: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture, IGNOU M.A. in Music.
5.1.1: Roots in Antiquity: The Origins
Vedic Period (c. 1500 – 500 BCE)
- Samaveda Chanting: Earliest documented source; hymns from Rigveda set to specific melodies (Samans) for rituals.
- Udgata Priests: Specialized priests chanting Samans with specific intonations and melodic patterns.
- Notation: Early forms used vertical strokes (udatta, anudatta, svarita) indicating accents, precursors to notes.
- Emphasis: Strong focus on precise pitch and rhythm, crucial for ritual efficacy.
Evidence in Ancient Texts
- Upanishads, Puranas, Epics: References to music, instruments, and singing.
- Mythological Figures: Gandharvas (celestial musicians), Narada often depicted with a Veena.
These literary sources paint a vivid picture of music's integral role in ancient Indian society and cosmology.
Sculptures & Archaeology
- Indus Valley: Seven-holed flute suggests early instruments.
- Mauryan & Post-Mauryan: Depictions of musicians, dancers, instruments (Veena, drums) in Bharhut, Sanchi, Amaravati reliefs.
- Bhimbetka Caves: Prehistoric rock paintings show figures dancing or playing rudimentary instruments.
Archaeological findings corroborate literary accounts, confirming the widespread prevalence of music.
Significance: These sources confirm an unbroken, highly evolved musical tradition rooted in religious chanting.
5.1.2: Codifying Harmony: Ancient Treatises
Natya Shastra of Bharata Muni
(c. 200 BCE – 200 CE, or later)
A comprehensive treatise on performing arts, primarily drama, with extensive chapters on music. Discusses Gandharva, grāmas, mūrchhanās, jati (precursors to Raga), śrutis, svaras, and tālas. Laid the theoretical foundation.
Gandharva Veda & Dattilam
(Gandharva Veda: Upaveda; Dattilam by Dattila: c. 4th-5th CE)
Gandharva Veda is an Upaveda associated with Samaveda, focusing on sacred music and dance. Dattilam is an early text specifically on Gandharva music, elaborating on srutis, svaras, gramas, jatis, and talas, building on Natya Shastra.
Brihaddeshi by Matanga Muni
(c. 9th CE)
A pivotal text that introduced and defined the concept of Raga (Raga-lakshana) for the first time.
Moved beyond the jati system to discuss Raga as a distinct melodic entity. Also discusses deshi (folk/regional) music alongside marga (classical/sacred).
Sangeeta Ratnakara by Sharangadeva
(c. 13th CE)
Often called Sapta Adhyayi (seven chapters). A highly influential and comprehensive Sanskrit text, considered the seminal text that codified existing musical practices just before the major bifurcation into Hindustani and Carnatic systems.
Systematically describes srutis, svaras, gramas, murchhanas, ragas (classifying them as marga and deshi), talas, and prabandhas (compositions).
Served as a common theoretical reference point for both North and South Indian musical traditions for centuries, providing a bridge between ancient theory and later developments.
These treatises form the backbone of Indian music theory, meticulously documenting its evolution.
5.1.3: The Building Blocks of Indian Music
Definition: The fundamental concept of sound, believed to be the cosmic sound or vibration.
Types:
- Anahata Nada (Unstruck Sound): Primordial, internal, unstruck sound, beyond human perception.
- Ahata Nada (Struck Sound): Audible sound produced by striking/vibrating objects; basis of practical music.
Significance: Highlights the spiritual and philosophical dimension; music as a path to spiritual realization.
Definition: The smallest perceivable interval of pitch (microtones), finer than a semitone.
Number: Ancient texts state 22 Shrutis in an octave.
Basis for Swaras: Swaras are derived from specific Shruti positions, providing nuanced pitch shades.
Significance: Fundamental to subtle melodic nuances and expressive capabilities (gamaks) of Indian music.
Definition: A musical note, a selected and stable pitch from the continuum of Shrutis.
The Seven Swaras (Saptaka):
- Shuddha Swaras (Natural): Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni.
- Vikrita Swaras (Modified): Komal (flat) for Re, Ga, Dha, Ni; Tivra (sharp) only for Ma.
- Achal Swaras: Sa and Pa are fixed.
Total Notes: 12 Swaras in a complete octave (7 Shuddha + 4 Komal + 1 Tivra).
Significance: Building blocks of Ragas; their arrangement defines melodic landscape.
Definition: An octave, a complete cycle of seven Swaras.
Registers: Three main Saptaks:
- Mandra Saptak: Lower Octave.
- Madhya Saptak: Middle Octave.
- Taar Saptak: Higher Octave.
Notation: Dots above/below Swara indicate Saptak.
Significance: Provides the range and vertical dimension for melodies.
Definition: The core melodic framework ("that which colors the mind"). More than a scale, a specific melodic entity with unique Swara combinations, movements, and phrases.
Key Elements: Aroha (ascent), Avaroha (descent), Vadi (king note), Samvadi (minister note), Pakad (catch phrase), specific Swaras, strict rules.
Evokes Rasas: Associated with specific aesthetic emotions (Shringara, Karuna, Veera, etc.).
Samay Chakra: Traditionally performed at specific times of day/season.
Significance: Provides framework for improvisation; the heart of Indian classical music.
Definition: The rhythmic framework or cycle, a recurring rhythmic pattern.
Key Elements: Matra (beat), Vibhag (division), Sam (first beat, clap), Khali (empty beat, wave), Tali (clap for stressed beats).
Various Talas: Hundreds exist (e.g., Teentaal - 16 beats, Adi Tala - 8 beats).
Significance: Provides mathematical precision and rhythmic structure for performance and improvisation.
Definition: The tempo or pace of the music; steady flow of time.
Types:
- Vilambit Laya: Slow Tempo.
- Madhya Laya: Medium Tempo.
- Drut Laya: Fast Tempo.
Significance: Provides dynamic dimension, allowing speed variation while maintaining rhythmic cycle.
Definition: Melodic embellishments or ornaments to enhance beauty and emotional content of a Raga.
Types: Meend (glide), Gamak (vibration), Kan Swara (grace note), Murki (fast circular ornament), Khatka (rapid turn).
Significance: Bring life and color to Raga framework, allowing expressive improvisation and Gharana-specific rendering.
Moorchhana:
An ancient concept (Natya Shastra) for deriving new scales by shifting the tonic within a parent scale (Grama). Historically significant, now obsolete in practice.
Grama:
Ancient parent scales or basic melodic modes (Natya Shastra), from which Moorchhanas and Jatis were derived (Shadja Grama, Madhyama Grama). Now obsolete, replaced by Thaat/Mela.
Thaat (Hindustani) / Mela or Melakarta (Carnatic):
- Thaat: (Hindustani) A theoretical parent scale (7 Swaras) from which Ragas are derived (10 fundamental Thaats).
- Mela/Melakarta: (Carnatic) A systematic 72-Melakarta Raga system, each a unique 7-note scale, from which Janya Ragas are derived.
Significance: Modern classification systems for Ragas.
5.1.4: The Great Bifurcation: Hindustani & Carnatic
Indian classical music largely bifurcated into two distinct major systems from the medieval period onwards, driven by political, cultural, and geographical dynamics.
Hindustani Music
- Region: North, West, East India, Pakistan, Bangladesh.
- Influence: Heavily influenced by Persian and Islamic traditions (13th-14th centuries onwards); new instruments (Sitar, Sarod, Tabla), melodic forms.
- Emphasis: Greater emphasis on improvisation, melodic development (badhat), abstract melody. Flexible Raga interpretation.
- Performance Forms: Dhrupad, Dhamar, Khayal, Tarana, Thumri, Dadra, Ghazal.
- Gharanas: Development of distinct schools/lineages with unique rendition styles.
Carnatic Music
- Region: Primarily South India (Karnataka, AP, Telangana, TN, Kerala).
- Influence: Largely closer to indigenous, ancient Indian musical traditions; less direct Persian/Islamic influence.
- Emphasis: Greater emphasis on vocal music, pre-composed kritis (keertanas), and a more structured approach to improvisation within the kriti framework. Mathematically rigorous and systematic (Melakarta system).
- Performance Forms: Kriti, Varnam, Thillana, Pallavi.
- Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Shyama Shastri: The Trinity of Carnatic Music (18th century CE) who systematized and enriched the kriti form.
Reasons for Bifurcation
- Political Fragmentation: Rise of independent regional kingdoms in North under Islamic rulers vs. continued Hindu patronage in South led to divergent paths.
- Cultural Exchange: North India's extensive cultural exchange with Persia and Central Asia introduced new musical ideas, instruments, and court patronage systems.
- Preservation of Indigenous Traditions: South India, less exposed to direct foreign influence, largely preserved ancient musical theories and practices with less syncretism.
Shared Foundations: Despite the bifurcation, both systems share common ancient theoretical roots (Natya Shastra, Brihaddeshi, Sangeeta Ratnakara) and fundamental concepts like Raga, Tala, Swara, and Shruti.
| Feature | Hindustani Music (North Indian) | Carnatic Music (South Indian) |
|---|---|---|
| Region | North, West, East India, Pakistan, Bangladesh | South India (Karnataka, AP, Telangana, TN, Kerala) |
| Major Influence | Persian, Islamic | Largely indigenous, less foreign influence |
| Emphasis | Improvisation, abstract melody, gradual Raga development (badhat) | Pre-composed compositions (kritis), structured improvisation |
| Vocal/Instrumental | Equally strong for both | Primarily vocal, instruments mimic vocal style |
| Raga System | 10 Thaats as parent scales | 72 Melakarta Ragas (more systematic) |
| Performance Forms | Dhrupad, Khayal, Tarana, Thumri, Ghazal | Kriti, Varnam, Thillana, Pallavi |
| Unique Feature | Gharana system (schools/lineages) | Trinity of Carnatic Music (Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Shyama Shastri) |
| Both share fundamental concepts of Raga, Tala, Swara, Shruti based on ancient texts. | ||
Current Landscape: Trends & Developments
- UNESCO ICH (Intangible Cultural Heritage): While Yoga (2016) and Kumbh Mela (2017) are recognized, Indian music traditions (e.g., specific Gharanas, Dhrupad) are strong contenders for future listings, highlighting India's rich intangible heritage.
- Government Initiatives: Sangeet Natak Akademi continues to promote Indian classical music through awards, festivals, and grants. Schemes like Paramparik Karigar (for crafts, concept relevant for arts) aim to support traditional artists.
- Digital Platforms: Increased use for online concerts, music education (e.g., Spic Macay online concerts), and archival of performances. This helps reach a wider audience and preserve rare recordings.
- Festivals and Events: Numerous national and international music festivals (e.g., Tansen Sangeet Samaroh, Dover Lane Music Conference, Chennai Music Season/Margazhi festival) continue to promote classical music, providing platforms for established and emerging artists.
- Music Education and Research: Universities and private institutions are increasingly using technology for music research, analysis of Ragas and Talas, and new pedagogical methods.
Conclusion: A Living Legacy
Indian music, rooted in the ancient chants of the Samaveda and meticulously theorized in Shilpa Shastras like Natya Shastra and Sangeeta Ratnakara, stands as a testament to India's profound cultural legacy. Its foundational concepts of Nada, Shruti, Swara, Raga, and Tala provide a remarkably sophisticated framework for melodic and rhythmic exploration, allowing for both rigorous structure and vast improvisation.
The post-13th century bifurcation into the Hindustani and Carnatic systems, driven by geo-political and cultural dynamics, created two distinct yet equally rich traditions, each retaining shared ancient roots while evolving unique performance practices. Understanding these foundations is not merely academic but crucial for appreciating the depth, spiritual dimension, and enduring vitality of Indian classical music, which continues to resonate globally as a symbol of India's rich intangible heritage.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Prelims MCQs
Q. With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following statements:
- White marble was used in the construction of the Lomas Rishi Cave.
- The Barabar Caves were excavated and dedicated to the Ajivikas by Emperor Ashoka.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 2 only
- (c) Both 1 and 2
- (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: (b)
Explanation: This question is about ancient architecture. Understanding ancient texts like Natya Shastra often involves knowing Bharata Muni, who also wrote on dance and theatre.
Q. Kathakali is a traditional dance form of which state?
- (a) Andhra Pradesh
- (b) Karnataka
- (c) Kerala
- (d) Tamil Nadu
Answer: (c)
Explanation: This tests knowledge of a specific classical dance form. Natya Shastra is a foundation for both music and dance, making this relevant.
Q. Consider the following statements:
- Deccan Sultanates contributed significantly to the development of miniature painting.
- Rajput schools of painting flourished under the patronage of local rulers.
- Mughal painting is characterized by its emphasis on landscape and nature without human figures.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (a)
Explanation: This question about painting styles is important for understanding the context of court patronage in medieval times, which also applies to music (e.g., patronage for Hindustani music).
Mains Questions
Q. Evaluate the nature of Bhakti literature and its contribution to Indian culture. (150 words)
Direction: Bhakti literature is deeply intertwined with music. Kritis in Carnatic and Bhajans in Hindustani are direct musical expressions of Bhakti. The question connects music's role in spiritual movements.
Value Points (linking to music):
- Musical Medium: Bhakti literature was often composed as poems (padavali) meant to be sung.
- Democratization of Music: Bhakti saints used vernacular languages, making spiritual themes and music accessible to common people, breaking elite barriers of classical music.
- Development of Forms: Led to the development of musical forms like Bhajans, Kirtans, Abhangs, Kritis in various regional languages.
- Raga-Tala Integration: Bhakti songs often utilized classical Ragas and Talas to convey emotion, bridging folk and classical traditions.
- Saints as Composers: Many Bhakti saints (e.g., Tyagaraja, Kabir, Mirabai) were also profound musical composers.
Q. Highlight the importance of the Mauryan art and architecture in representing the social and religious conditions of the time. (250 words)
Direction: This question indirectly touches upon the evidence of early music in ancient India through sculptures (e.g., musical instruments shown in reliefs), as discussed in Subtopic 5.1.1.
Q. Examine the relevance of the rock-cut architecture in understanding the early Indian history. (200 words)
Direction: Similar to above, depictions of musicians and dancers in rock-cut caves (e.g., Ajanta, Ellora) provide evidence for the existence and practice of music in ancient times.
Q. "The concept of Raga is the soul of Indian classical music, offering a unique blend of structure and improvisational freedom." Elucidate, also discussing how it is intrinsically linked with Tala and Rasa. (250 words)
Value Points:
- Raga as Soul: Define Raga as more than a scale – a melodic framework with specific Swaras, Aroha/Avaroha, Vadi/Samvadi, Pakad.
- Structure & Freedom: Structure provided by fixed Swaras and rules for movement; freedom allows for extensive improvisation (alap, taans, svarakalpana) within boundaries.
- Link with Tala: Tala provides the rhythmic framework (cycle of Matras); melody (Raga) unfolds within the rhythmic cycle. Both are interdependent for a complete performance.
- Link with Rasa: Each Raga associated with a specific Rasa (emotion); selection of Swaras, emphasis (Vadi), and Alankars designed to evoke intended emotion. Samay Chakra enhances Rasa.
- Conclusion: Sophisticated interplay of Raga, Tala, and Rasa makes Indian classical music a profound art form.
Trend Analysis: UPSC Questioning Style
Prelims:
- Terminology: Consistent focus on understanding fundamental musical terms (Raga, Tala, Swara, Shruti, Saptak, Thaat/Mela).
- Key Texts: Questions on authors and significance of seminal texts like Natya Shastra, Brihaddeshi, Sangeeta Ratnakara.
- Bifurcation: Differentiating Hindustani and Carnatic music based on influences, performance styles, or terminology.
- Origin: Samaveda is a frequent point of inquiry regarding origins.
- Ancillary Concepts: Questions on Rasas, Samay Chakra, Alankars.
Mains:
- Conceptual Understanding: Deeper conceptual understanding of terms like Raga and Tala, and their interrelationships.
- Evolution and Bifurcation: Analyzing the historical process of bifurcation and the influences that shaped the two systems.
- Cultural Significance: Discussion of music's role in spiritual movements (Bhakti), its philosophical underpinnings (Nada), and its societal impact.
- Comparison: Explicitly or implicitly asking for comparisons between Hindustani and Carnatic.
- Role of Texts: Importance of ancient texts in codifying musical theory.
Overall, UPSC looks for a comprehensive and analytical understanding of the theoretical framework and historical evolution of Indian classical music, moving beyond rote memorization of terms.
Practice MCQs for Prelims
Q. With reference to the fundamental concepts of Indian classical music, which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched?
- Shruti: The smallest perceivable interval of pitch.
- Alankar: The basic rhythmic cycle of the music.
- Samay Chakra: The association of specific Ragas with particular times of the day or seasons.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 2 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (c)
Explanation:
- Pair 1 is correct. Shruti refers to microtones, the smallest discernible pitch intervals.
- Pair 2 is incorrect. Alankar refers to ornaments or embellishments in music. The basic rhythmic cycle is Tala.
- Pair 3 is correct. Samay Chakra (Time Cycle) is the traditional association of Ragas with specific times of day or seasons, believed to enhance their emotional effect.
Q. Which of the following ancient texts is credited with introducing the concept of Raga as a distinct melodic entity in Indian music theory?
- (a) Natya Shastra
- (b) Brihaddeshi
- (c) Sangeeta Ratnakara
- (d) Gandharva Veda
Answer: (b)
Explanation:
- (a) Natya Shastra discusses jatis (precursors to Ragas) and general music theory.
- (b) Brihaddeshi by Matanga Muni is specifically credited with defining and introducing the concept of Raga as a separate melodic form.
- (c) Sangeeta Ratnakara is a later comprehensive text that codified and systematized Ragas and Talas, but the introduction of the Raga concept itself is attributed to Brihaddeshi.
- (d) Gandharva Veda is an Upaveda dealing with music in a broader, ritualistic sense, not specifically the introduction of the Raga concept.