Introduction to Indian Theatre
Indian theatre boasts an unbroken and highly sophisticated lineage, deeply intertwined with ritual, religion, and daily life. This foundational topic traces its antiquity and evolution, from nascent dramatic elements in Vedic hymns and references in epics to concrete archaeological evidence like the Sitabenga Cave inscription.
At its heart lies the Natya Shastra of Bharata Muni, the seminal treatise that comprehensively codified Natya (drama as a synthesis of dance, music, and acting), delineated various play types and production elements, and laid the cornerstone for the Rasa theory. The topic then delves into the Classical Sanskrit Theatre, exploring its "Golden Age" during the Gupta and Post-Gupta periods, highlighting major playwrights (Bhasa, Shudraka, Kalidasa, Vishakhadatta) and their iconic works. It examines the distinct characteristics of Sanskrit plays and the reasons for their eventual decline.
Finally, it spotlights Koodiyattam (Kerala), recognized by UNESCO, as the oldest surviving form of Sanskrit theatre, showcasing its elaborate acting, ritualistic performances, and unique features.
Key Sources
- NCERT Class 11 - An Introduction to Indian Art
- Nitin Singhania - Indian Art and Culture
- M.L. Varadpande - History of Indian Theatre
- S. Rangacharya - The Natyashastra
- UNESCO World Heritage Centre
Antiquity and Evolution
Vedic Hymns with Dramatic Elements
c. 1500 – 500 BCE
Some hymns in the Rig Veda (e.g., dialogues between Yama and Yami, Pururavas and Urvashi) have a dialogue form and dramatic qualities, suggesting rudimentary dramatic recitations or performances.
References in Epics
Ramayana, Mahabharata
Both Ramayana and Mahabharata contain numerous references to performances, actors (natas), dancers, and dramatic presentations in royal courts and public gatherings, indicating theatre as an established form.
Sitabenga Cave Inscription
Chhattisgarh, c. 3rd century BCE
Considered the earliest archaeological evidence of a theatre-like structure or playhouse in India. Refers to a performance by Devadatta and Sutanuka, suggesting organized theatrical activity.
Divine Origin (as per Natya Shastra)
Mythological Foundation
Lord Brahma created Natya as the fifth Veda (Natya Veda) by combining elements from the four Vedas. Lord Shiva contributed Tandava, Goddess Parvati the Lasya.
These diverse sources confirm that Indian theatre has an ancient and continuous lineage, deeply rooted in ritual, religious narrative, and a systematic approach to performance.
Natya Shastra: The Foundational Text
Attributed to Bharata Muni
Period: c. 200 BCE – 200 CE (dating debated)
Contents: A voluminous text with approximately 6,000 verses, covering every aspect of stagecraft.
Holistic Art: Natya is defined as a synthesis of Nataka (drama), Nritya (interpretive dance), Nritta (pure dance), and Sangita (music).
Fifth Veda: Presented as the Panchama Veda (Fifth Veda), created for all Varnas and accessible to everyone.
Purpose: To provide Rasa (aesthetic experience) and Bhava (emotions), and to teach Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha.
- Nataka: Heroic play with a well-known plot (mythological/historical) and a divine or royal hero (e.g., Kalidasa's Abhijnanasakuntalam).
- Prakarana: Invented plot, common people, social themes, hero often a Brahmin or merchant (e.g., Shudraka's Mricchakatika).
- Bhāṇa: One-act monologue.
- Prahasana: Farce (comedy).
- Ḍima: Well-known story, many male characters, Raudra Rasa.
- Vyāyoga: One-act play, few female characters, well-known story.
- Samavakāra: Three-act play, divine/semi-divine heroes, known plot.
- Vīthī: One-act play, humorous.
- Aṅka: One-act play, depicts a single day.
- Īhāmṛga: Four-act play, divine hero, love themes with conflict.
Uparupakas (Minor Forms): Later texts mentioned Uparupakas, focusing more on dance and music than dialogue.
Detailed Instructions for Playhouses (Natya Mandapas):
- Vikrishta (Rectangular): Most common and ideal, classified by size.
- Chaturasra (Square): Square-shaped theatre.
- Tryasra (Triangular): Triangular-shaped theatre (rarely constructed).
Key Features:
- Detailed specifications for seating arrangements.
- Precise stage dimensions.
- Dedicated dressing rooms (nepathya griha).
- Consideration for acoustics.
Also covers Purvaranga (Preliminary Rituals), Acting Styles (Abhinaya: Angika, Vachika, Aharya, Sattvika), and Rasa Theory Application.
Classical Sanskrit Theatre: The Golden Age
The Gupta period (c. 4th-6th CE) and immediate Post-Gupta period represent the zenith of Sanskrit drama, a time of literary excellence, sophisticated plots, and refined characters, supported by royal patronage.
Notable Playwrights and Their Masterpieces
Bhasa
c. 2nd Century BCE - 2nd Century CE (pre-Kalidasa)
Significance: Earliest known and prolific playwright, known for dramatic tension and often tragic elements, a departure from later Sanskrit drama.
Works:
- Svapnavasavadattam (The Dream of Vasavadatta)
- Urubhangam (The Breaking of the Thighs) - a rare tragedy
- Karnabharam (The Burden of Karna)
Shudraka
c. 3rd-4th Century CE
Significance: Known for unique Prakarana plays with social realism.
Work:
- Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart): Depicts ordinary characters from diverse strata, blending comic and serious elements, using mixed Sanskrit and Prakrit.
Kalidasa
c. 4th-5th Century CE
Significance: Widely considered the greatest poet and dramatist of Sanskrit literature, often compared to Shakespeare. Known for lyrical beauty and emotional depth.
Works:
- Abhijnanasakuntalam (The Recognition of Shakuntala) - his most famous.
- Malavikagnimitram (Malavika and Agnimitra)
- Vikramorvasiyam (Urvasi Won by Valor)
Vishakhadatta
c. 4th-5th Century CE
Significance: Known for his unique political-historical play.
Work:
- Mudrarakshasa (The Signet Ring of Rakshasa): A political drama with no female characters or love interest, focusing on intrigue and statesmanship.
Harshavardhana
7th Century CE
Significance: Emperor Harsha, a great patron and playwright himself.
Works:
- Ratnavali
- Priyadarshika
- Nagananda (Buddhist play)
Bhavabhuti
c. 8th Century CE
Significance: Known for his powerful tragic plays and emphasis on pathos (Karuna Rasa).
Works:
- Uttararamacharita (Later Deeds of Rama)
- Mahaviracharita (Life of Mahavira)
- Malatimadhava
Distinct Characteristics
- Language Division: Sanskrit for elite males; Prakrit for women, servants, lower-caste, reflecting social stratification.
- Elaborate Poetic Language: Rich, lyrical, ornate, employing intricate metaphors and meters.
- Blend of Comic and Serious: Integrated serious themes with comic relief (e.g., Vidushaka/jester).
- Happy Endings (Sukhaant): Most plays traditionally concluded with a happy resolution (except Bhasa's Urubhangam).
- No Obscenity/Violence on Stage: Prescribed by Natya Shastra; implied or described, not depicted directly.
- Integration of Music and Dance: Integral components as per Natya Shastra.
- Stock Characters: Use of archetypal characters (hero, heroine, villain, jester).
Reasons for Decline
- Loss of Royal Patronage: Decline of large empires diminished the lavish support needed.
- Rise of Regional Languages: Flourishing of new folk and regional theatre forms in emerging languages (Prakrits to modern Indian languages) made Sanskrit less accessible.
- Complexity of Sanskrit: Became an increasingly scholarly and elite language, difficult for the general public. Plays grew more linguistically and poetically complex.
- Invasions & Instability: Frequent political disruptions in North India impacted cultural institutions.
- Changing Tastes: Popular tastes shifted towards more accessible folk and devotional performances.
Koodiyattam: A Living Legacy
Oldest Surviving Sanskrit Theatre
Koodiyattam (or Kutiyattam, meaning "combined acting") from Kerala is officially recognized by UNESCO as the oldest surviving living traditional Sanskrit theatre form in India, representing an unbroken lineage tracing back to the Natya Shastra.
UNESCO Intangible Heritage (2001)Performance Characteristics
- Highly Stylized: Emphasizes detailed Angika Abhinaya (gestures, Mudras) and Sattvika Abhinaya (emotions).
- Make-up & Costume: Elaborate traditional make-up and costumes, similar to Kathakali.
- Slow-paced: Performances are extremely slow-paced, taking many nights or even weeks to enact a single act.
- Setting: Traditionally performed in specially consecrated temple theatres called Koothambalams.
Unique Features
- Role of Vidushaka (Jester): A unique and central character, the only one allowed to speak in local vernacular (Malayalam) and improvise, interpreting Sanskrit text for the audience.
- Ritualistic: Performances follow a specific order rooted in tradition.
- Instruments: Accompanied by Mizhavu (large copper drum), Edakka (hourglass drum), Kuzhitalam (cymbals), and Kuzhal (wind instrument).
- Cultural Bridge: A living bridge to ancient Sanskrit theatre, preserving intricate practices and theoretical underpinnings.
Current Affairs & Developments
- UNESCO ICH Monitoring: Continuous efforts in conservation and promotion of Koodiyattam.
- Government Support: Sangeet Natak Akademi and Ministry of Culture support through awards, grants, and documentation.
- Festivals: Traditional forms featured in theatre festivals across India.
- Digital Archiving: Ongoing efforts to digitally preserve scripts, performance videos, and resources.
- Academic Research: Continued scholarly work on Natya Shastra, Sanskrit drama, and Koodiyattam.
- Contemporary Interpretations: Modern adaptations drawing inspiration from classical texts.
UPSC Previous Year Questions
PYQ 2022 - Prelims (Q. In the context of the history of Indian arts and culture, which of the following statements is/are correct?)
- The Dhrupad style of music evolved in the Carnatic tradition.
- Gharnaa system is a distinguishing feature of Hindustani classical music.
- The Thumri form of music is an important contribution of the Bhakti Movement.
Answer: (b) 2 only
Hint: Music is an integral part of Indian theatre (as per Natya Shastra).
PYQ 2017 - Prelims (Q. Kathakali is a traditional dance form of which state?)
(a) Andhra Pradesh (b) Karnataka (c) Kerala (d) Tamil Nadu
Answer: (c)
Hint: Kathakali shares strong influences with Koodiyattam (Subtopic 7.1.4) from Kerala.
PYQ 2021 - Mains (GS-I)
Q. Evaluate the nature of Bhakti literature and its contribution to Indian culture. (150 words)
PYQ 2020 - Mains (GS-I)
Q. Differentiate between the cultural art and architecture of Mauryan and Post-Mauryan periods. (250 words)
More relevant specific Mains Question (UPSC style):
Q. "The Natya Shastra of Bharata Muni is not merely a technical treatise but a holistic commentary on the philosophical and aesthetic principles of Indian performing arts." Elaborate, highlighting its pivotal contribution to classical Indian theatre. (250 words)
Value Points:
- Natya as Synthesis (Panchama Veda: dance, music, acting)
- Philosophical (Rasa-Bhava Theory, Divine Origin)
- Aesthetic (Abhinaya: Angika, Vachika, Aharya, Sattvika)
- Practical (Purvaranga, Stagecraft)
- Pivotal Contribution (common theoretical bedrock for all classical forms)
Trend Analysis & Practice
UPSC Question Trend Analysis
Over the last 10 years, UPSC's questioning style for Indian Theatre shows:
- Prelims Focus: Natya Shastra (author, Rasa, Abhinaya, play types), Playwrights & Works, Koodiyattam (UNESCO, features), Chronology, Basic Sanskrit Play Characteristics.
- Mains Focus: Natya Shastra Significance, Evolution & Decline, Specific Playwrights/Works, Koodiyattam as a Living Legacy, Connecting Theory to Practice.
Overall, UPSC expects a deep understanding of the Natya Shastra as the core, and how it shaped the flourishing of Sanskrit theatre and its continued legacy.
Original MCQs for Prelims
Q. Which of the following statements about Classical Sanskrit Theatre is/are correct?
- Plays typically ended with a happy resolution, often referred to as Sukhaant.
- Only Sanskrit language was used for all characters, irrespective of their social status.
- Violence and death scenes were often depicted directly on stage as per Natya Shastra guidelines.
Q. Consider the following pairs of Sanskrit Playwright and their Notable Work:
- Bhasa: Urubhangam
- Shudraka: Abhijnanasakuntalam
- Vishakhadatta: Mudrarakshasa