Medieval Indian Literature

A Journey Through India's Linguistic and Cultural Renaissance (c. 700 CE - 1800 CE)

Witness the transformation from classical Sanskrit to the spectacular rise of diverse regional languages, shaped by profound spiritual movements and cross-cultural exchanges.

Explore the Literary Landscape

Introduction: A Period of Transformation

The Medieval period (c. 700 CE - 1800 CE) marks a pivotal transformation in Indian literary history, characterized by the decline of classical Sanskrit and the spectacular rise of diverse regional languages. This era witnessed Apabhramsha literature serving as a crucial bridge to modern Indo-Aryan languages, particularly through Jain and Buddhist writers.

The establishment of Islamic rule introduced and fostered Persian Literature, which became the court language, enriching historical chronicles and Sufi poetry. Concurrently, a vibrant synthesis led to the birth and flourishing of Urdu Language and Literature, especially in the Deccan and later North India, marked by its distinct poetic forms.

The most profound development was the widespread Bhakti Literature, which, through devotional fervor, revolutionized regional languages across the subcontinent. Parallel to this, Sufi Literature also contributed mystical poetry, often blending Persian with regional idioms. This section details the immense growth of various regional languages and their unique literary outputs, demonstrating a dynamic cultural renaissance and a rich linguistic mosaic.

Key Literary Eras & Movements

Core Literary Developments

Apabhramsha Literature: The Bridging Dialect

Apabhramsha represents the final stage of Middle Indo-Aryan languages, acting as a crucial linguistic bridge to the formation of modern Indo-Aryan languages. It signifies a departure from strict grammatical rules, moving closer to modern vernaculars.

Period

Roughly 6th to 13th centuries CE.

Characteristics

Departure from strict Prakrit grammar, closer to modern vernacular syntax/morphology.

Literary Role

Significant in developing early forms of Hindi, Gujarati, Rajasthani, and Bengali.

Dominant Patrons

Jain writers were prominent, composing narratives and didactic texts.

Svayambhu (c. 8th CE)

Work: Paumachariu (Padma Charita)

A famous epic, a Jaina version of the Ramayana, presenting Rama (Padma) as a virtuous Jain and Ravana as a devout devotee.

Significance: Showcases adaptation of traditional narratives to Jain philosophy.

Pushpadanta (c. 10th CE)

Works: Mahapurana, Jasahara Charu

Known for elaborate style. Jain literature in Apabhramsha is rich, contributing to modern Indian languages.

Also: Buddhist Siddhas like Sarahapa (8th CE) composed mystical verses (Dohas) in Apabhramsha (Charyapadas), influencing later Eastern Indian vernaculars.

Persian Literature: The Courtly & Chronicled Word

Persian became the dominant court language and a major literary force in medieval India, especially during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire periods.

Court Language

Official administrative language of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire.

Historical Chronicles (Tarikh)

Detailed accounts of rulers, conquests, administration, and society.

Poetry (Diwan)

Ghazals, Masnavis, Rubais widely composed and appreciated.

Sufi Literature

Mystical poetry and prose disseminating Sufi philosophy.

Amir Khusrau (c. 13th-14th CE)

Versatile genius: poet, musician, historian, Sufi mystic. "Tuti-e-Hind" (Parrot of India). Associated with Delhi Sultanate.

Works:

  • Historical: Khazain-ul-Futuh, Tughlaq Nama.
  • Poetry: Numerous Diwans (Ghazals, Masnavis).
  • Linguistic: Associated with development of Hindavi (early Urdu/Khari Boli), composed Pahelis & Dohas.
Influence: Symbolizes the composite culture of India.

Ziauddin Barani (c. 14th CE)

Historian during Tughlaq period.

Works:

  • Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi.
  • Fatwa-i-Jahandari.

Minhaj-us-Siraj (c. 13th CE)

Work: Tabaqat-i-Nasiri

Comprehensive history of the Islamic world, including India (Ghurids and early Delhi Sultanate).

Mughal Period Literary Figures

Abul Fazl (16th CE)

Court historian of Akbar.

  • Akbarnama
  • Ain-i-Akbari

Abdul Qadir Badauni (16th CE)

Contemporary of Abul Fazl, critical of Akbar's policies.

  • Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh

Babur (16th CE)

Founder of Mughal Empire.

  • Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama, orig. Chagatai Turkic, later Persian).

Jahangir (17th CE)

Mughal Emperor.

  • Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Autobiography in Persian).

Dara Shikoh (17th CE)

Eldest son of Shah Jahan, syncretic leanings.

  • Sirr-i-Akbar (Persian translation of 50 Upanishads).

Other Poets

Faizi (Akbar's court poet), Urfi, Naziri, Bedil (complex philosophical poetry).

Significance: Persian literature provided a rich historical record, a vibrant poetic tradition, and a medium for cultural exchange, deeply influencing Indian intellectual and literary life.

The Flourishing of Urdu: A Syncretic Tongue

Urdu emerged as a vibrant new language, blending various linguistic elements. Often referred to as Lashkari Zaban (language of the army camps) or Rekhta (mixed).

Synthesis

Developed from interaction of local Indian vernaculars (Khari Boli/Hindavi) with Persian, Arabic, and Turkish vocabulary and grammar.

Evolution

Evolved into a distinct language with its own grammar and literary tradition, written in Perso-Arabic (Nastaliq) script.

Early Flourishing

Urdu (often called Dakhini or Deccani) flourished first in the Deccan Sultanates (Bahmani, Qutb Shahi, Adil Shahi) before gaining prominence in North India.

Quli Qutb Shah (16th-17th CE)

Sultan of Golkonda. Prolific poet, one of the earliest masters of Dakhini Urdu.

Vali Gujarati / Vali Deccani (17th-18th CE)

Considered the first major Urdu poet to write a Diwan (collection of Ghazals) in Urdu that became popular in North India, inspiring northern poets.

Golden Age: The 18th and 19th centuries saw the golden age of Urdu poetry in North India, especially Delhi and Lucknow.
Iconic Urdu Poets & Forms

Mir Taqi Mir (18th CE)

"Shair-e-Bekhud". Known for simple language, expression of love and melancholy.

Mirza Ghalib (19th CE)

Towering figure. Profound philosophical insights, wit, complex expression in Ghazals.

Sauda (18th CE)

Master of Qasida (panegyric).

Dard (18th CE)

Sufi poet, known for mystical Ghazals.

Momin (19th CE)

Known for delicate love poetry.

Zauq (19th CE)

Poet laureate to Bahadur Shah Zafar.

Prominent Poetic Forms:

  • Ghazal: Most popular form. Lyrical poem, rhyming couplets, themes of love, longing, mysticism.
  • Masnavi: Long narrative poem (historical, romantic, didactic).
  • Qasida: Panegyric poem, often praising a patron or religious figure.
  • Marsiya: Elegy, focused on martyrdom of Imam Hussain.
  • Rubai: Quatrain (four-line stanza) with specific rhyme scheme.
Significance: Urdu literature represents a rich tapestry of Indo-Islamic culture, contributing significantly to poetry, prose, and intellectual discourse.

Bhakti Literature: Devotion in the Vernacular

The Bhakti movement profoundly influenced the development of regional languages, giving them literary prestige and devotional content.

Common Characteristics:

  • Vernacular Language: Composed in common people's language, making spiritual messages accessible.
  • Devotional Focus: Emphasis on personal devotion to a specific deity (Vaishnava, Shaiva, Nirguna).
  • Simple & Lyrical: Often simple, heartfelt, and lyrical compositions (poems, songs).
  • Transcendence of Caste: Saints often from diverse backgrounds, promoting social equality.
  • Oral Transmission: Popularized through oral transmission and congregational singing.
Regional Flourishing of Bhakti Literature

1. Tamil Nadu

  • Alvars (Vaishnavite, c. 6th-9th CE): Divya Prabandham.
  • Nayanars (Shaivite, c. 6th-9th CE): Tevaram.

Pioneered Bhakti, enriching Tamil literature.

2. Karnataka

  • Virashaiva Vachanas (c. 12th CE): Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi.
  • Haridasas (Vaishnavite, c. 13th-16th CE): Purandaradasa, Kanakadasa.

3. Maharashtra

  • Varkari Saints (c. 13th-18th CE): Jnaneshwar (Jnaneshwari), Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram (Abhangas).

4. North India (Hindi belt)

  • Nirguna: Kabir (Bijak), Guru Nanak, Raidas.
  • Saguna: Surdas (Sursagar), Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas), Mirabai.

5. Bengal

  • Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
  • Vaishnava Padavali: Chandidas, Vidyapati.
  • Krittibas Ojha: Bengali Ramayana.

6. Punjab

  • Guru Nanak & Sikh Gurus: Adi Granth / Guru Granth Sahib (Shabad Gurbani).

7. Gujarat

  • Narsinh Mehta (Vaishnava Jana To).

8. Assam

  • Srimanta Sankaradeva: Borgeets, Ankiya Naats, Kirtan Ghosa.

9. Odisha

  • Panchasakhas (c. 15th-16th CE).
  • Sarala Dasa: Odia Mahabharata.
Significance: Bhakti literature revolutionized Indian languages by elevating vernaculars to literary status, making spiritual and philosophical ideas accessible to the masses, promoting social equality, and creating a rich tradition of devotional poetry and music.

Sufi Literature: Mysticism & Humanism

Sufi literature contributed a distinct mystical and humanistic dimension to medieval Indian languages, often blending Persian with regional idioms.

Characteristics:

  • Mystical Love: Spiritual love for God, often through worldly love metaphors.
  • Humanism: Emphasized compassion, tolerance, universality of faith.
  • Syncretism: Incorporated local traditions, folk tales, music, blending Islamic & indigenous elements.
  • Languages: Persian, Hindavi/Awadhi, Punjabi, Sindhi, other regional languages.

Malik Muhammad Jayasi (16th CE)

Work: Padmavat (1540 CE)

Written in Awadhi. Narrates Rani Padmini and Alauddin Khalji, allegorizing the Sufi path.

Significance: Landmark work in Prem-Margi tradition, blending history, legend, Sufi philosophy.

Baba Farid (12th-13th CE)

One of earliest Sufi saints whose verses are in Guru Granth Sahib. Pioneer of Punjabi literature.

Bulleh Shah (17th-18th CE)

Famous Punjabi Sufi poet, known for his Kafis criticizing orthodoxy and emphasizing humanism.

Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai (18th CE)

Greatest Sufi poet of Sindhi. Work: Shah Jo Risalo, blending Sufi mysticism with folk tales.

Other Notable Sufi Literary Contributions

  • Dakhini Urdu: Khwaja Bande Nawaz Gesudaraz.
  • Kashmiri: Lal Ded (Lalleshwari) also had Sufi influences in her Vakhs.
  • Punjabi: Shah Hussain, Sultan Bahu.
Significance: Sufi literature broadened the themes and emotional range of regional languages, promoting syncretism and humanism.

Regional Languages: A Mosaic of Voices

The medieval period saw a dramatic rise in the literary output of various regional languages, each developing its unique character.

Explore by Language

Hindi Dialects (Braj, Awadhi, Khari Boli)

  • Braj Bhasha: Krishna Bhakti (Surdas, Mirabai).
  • Awadhi: Rama Bhakti (Tulsidas' Ramcharitmanas), Sufi Prem-Margi (Jayasi's Padmavat).
  • Khari Boli: Early form of modern Hindi/Urdu (Amir Khusrau).

Bengali

  • Charyapadas (c. 8th-12th CE).
  • Mangal Kavyas (c. 13th-18th CE).
  • Vaishnava Padavali (Chandidas, Vidyapati).
  • Krittibas Ojha (Krittivasi Ramayana).

Assamese

  • Madhav Kandali (Saptakanda Ramayana).
  • Srimanta Sankaradeva (Borgeets, Ankiya Naats, Kirtan Ghosa).

Odia

  • Sarala Dasa (Odia Mahabharata).
  • Panchasakhas (Balarama Dasa, Jagannatha Dasa).

Marathi

  • Mahanubhava Literature (c. 13th CE).
  • Varkari Saints: Jnaneshwar (Jnaneshwari), Tukaram (Abhangas).

Gujarati

  • Narsinh Mehta (Vaishnava Jana To).
  • Premanand Bhatt (Akhyan).

Punjabi

  • Adi Granth / Guru Granth Sahib (Sikh Gurus, Baba Farid, Kabir).
  • Kissa Poetry: Waris Shah (Heer Ranjha).

Kashmiri

  • Lal Ded / Lalleshwari (Vakhs).
  • Sheikh Noor-ud-din Wali (Shruks).

Sindhi

  • Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai (Shah Jo Risalo).

Telugu

  • Kavitrayam: Nannaya, Tikkana, Errapragada (Mahabharata).
  • Krishnadevaraya (Amuktamalyada).
  • Vemana (Philosophical poems).

Kannada

  • Ratnatraya: Pampa, Ranna, Ponna.
  • Vachana Literature: Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi.
  • Haridasa Sahitya: Purandaradasa, Kanakadasa.

Malayalam

  • Rama Panikkar (Kannassa Ramayanam).
  • Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan (Father of Malayalam, Adhyatma Ramayanam).
  • Cherusseri Namboothiri (Krishnagatha).
Significance: This period signifies a dynamic cultural renaissance and a rich linguistic mosaic.

Current Relevance & Developments

National Education Policy (NEP) 2020

Continued implementation emphasizes promoting Indian languages and literatures, including regional languages. This impacts curriculum development and research.

Digitalization of Manuscripts

Government initiatives (e.g., National Mission for Manuscripts) and academic institutions continue to digitize ancient and medieval manuscripts, making them accessible.

Translation Initiatives

Promotion of translation of literary works from one Indian language to another, and into foreign languages, to foster national integration and global awareness. Sahitya Akademi plays a key role.

Literary Festivals

Various literary festivals (e.g., Jaipur Literature Festival, Kerala Literature Festival) continue to showcase the richness of Indian languages and literature, including medieval works.

Demands for Language Recognition

Persistent demand for Marathi to be accorded classical language status, and advocacy for Pali and Prakrit, generating discussion on historical significance.

Cultural Diplomacy

Efforts to promote Indian literature globally through various cultural exchange programs.

UPSC Previous Year Questions

Prelims MCQs

1. PYQ 2021 - Prelims

Q. Pali as a language is mentioned in the context of:

  • (a) Buddhist scriptures
  • (b) Jain scriptures
  • (c) Vedic hymns
  • (d) Sufi poetry

Answer: (a)

2. PYQ 2018 - Prelims

Q. With reference to the cultural history of India, which one of the following is the correct description of the term 'paramitas'?

  • (a) The earliest Dharmashastra texts
  • (b) Buddhist philosophical schools
  • (c) Perfections whose attainment led to the Bodhisattva path
  • (d) Ancient Indian script

Answer: (c)

3. PYQ 2015 - Prelims

Q. Consider the following statements:

  1. Deccan Sultanates contributed significantly to the development of miniature painting.
  2. Rajput schools of painting flourished under the patronage of local rulers.
  3. Mughal painting is characterized by its emphasis on landscape and nature without human figures.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  • (a) 1 and 2 only
  • (b) 2 and 3 only
  • (c) 1 and 3 only
  • (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a)

Mains Questions

1. PYQ 2021 - Mains (GS-I)

Q. Evaluate the nature of Bhakti literature and its contribution to Indian culture. (150 words)

Direction: This is a direct and excellent question on a core subtopic (8.3.4). A comprehensive answer would elaborate on its characteristics, major saints/works across regions, and its role in developing regional languages, promoting social equality, and popularizing devotional themes.

2. Relevant UPSC Style Question (Not PYQ)

Q. "The medieval period in India witnessed a literary renaissance marked by the decline of Sanskrit and the rise of regional languages, driven by the Bhakti and Sufi movements." Elaborate on this statement with examples from the literary landscape of the period. (250 words)

Direction: This directly asks for an analytical discussion of the major trends and influences in medieval literature.

Test Your Knowledge

1. Q. With reference to medieval Indian literature, consider the following statements:

  • Padmavat by Malik Muhammad Jayasi is a Sufi Prem-Margi poem written in Awadhi dialect.
  • Amir Khusrau is associated with the development of Hindavi and is known as "Tuti-e-Hind".
  • The Adi Granth (Guru Granth Sahib) is primarily a collection of hymns composed exclusively in Punjabi by Sikh Gurus.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  • (a) 1 only
  • (b) 1 and 2 only
  • (c) 2 and 3 only
  • (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (b)

Explanation: Statement 3 is incorrect as Adi Granth contains hymns in various languages/dialects.

2. Q. Which of the following pairs of Regional Language and its Pioneer Medieval Literary Figure is/are correctly matched?

  • Malayalam: Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan
  • Assamese: Srimanta Sankaradeva
  • Odia: Sarala Dasa
  • Gujarati: Narsinh Mehta

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

  • (a) 1, 2 and 3 only
  • (b) 2 and 4 only
  • (c) 1, 3 and 4 only
  • (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: (d)

Explanation: All the pairs are correctly matched as per historical consensus.

Conclusion: A Legacy of Literary Brilliance

Medieval Indian literature marks a profound linguistic and cultural renaissance, characterized by the dynamic interplay of indigenous traditions with Persian, Arabic, and Turkish influences.

Apabhramsha literature served as a vital bridge, paving the way for the flourishing of modern Indo-Aryan languages. The introduction of Persian literature enriched historical chronicles and Sufi poetry, while giving birth to Urdu, a unique syncretic language that soon produced poetic giants like Mirza Ghalib.

Most significantly, the Bhakti Movement revolutionized regional languages, giving them literary prestige and popularizing spiritual and philosophical themes across the subcontinent. Parallel to this, Sufi literature deepened mystical expression.

This period saw the spectacular growth of virtually all major regional languages (Bengali, Assamese, Odia, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Kashmiri, Sindhi), each developing its unique literary masterpieces, reflecting distinct regional identities.

This vibrant literary mosaic stands as a testament to India's dynamic cultural evolution, enriching its heritage with diverse voices and enduring narratives that continue to resonate today.