Bhakti & Sufi Movements: A Journey of Devotion

Exploring the profound spiritual and social renaissance of Medieval India.

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Introduction to Bhakti & Sufi

The medieval period (roughly 6th to 18th centuries CE) in India witnessed a profound spiritual and social renaissance driven by the Bhakti and Sufi movements. These parallel yet interconnected traditions, while distinct in their origins, shared a powerful emphasis on devotion (Bhakti/Ishq), personal connection with God, and a critique of orthodox ritualism and social hierarchies. This topic first explores the nature and salient features common to both movements, such as monotheism, emotional worship, and the use of regional languages. It then delves into the Bhakti Movement, tracing its origins from the Alvars and Nayanars in South India to its eventual spread north, dissecting its Saguna (form-based) and Nirguna (formless) streams through key saints. The profound impact of Bhakti on Indian society, religion, literature, and music is highlighted. Subsequently, the Sufi Movement is examined for its deep interaction with Hindu Yogic and Bhakti traditions, its crucial role in promoting communal harmony and cultural synthesis (Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb), and its extensive influence on regional literature and music (Qawwali). Finally, the topic concludes with a comprehensive analysis of the similarities and differences between these two transformative movements, underscoring their collective legacy in shaping India's unique spiritual and cultural fabric.

Core Insight

The Bhakti and Sufi movements were two significant spiritual currents of the medieval period in India, both emphasizing personal devotion and contributing to a rich cultural synthesis.

Source: NCERT Class 7 - Our Pasts - II, Nitin Singhania - Indian Art and Culture, Satish Chandra - Medieval India, William Dalrymple - Sufism in India, Upinder Singh - A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, S. Radhakrishnan - Indian Philosophy, Medieval Indian Literature: An Anthology by K. Ayyappa Paniker, IGNOU M.A. in History/Religion.

9.6.1: Nature & Salient Features

Bhakti and Sufi movements, though distinct in their origins, shared several common characteristics that made them popular.

Emphasis on Devotion (Bhakti/Ishq)

Stressed intense, personal, and emotional love for God as the primary means to spiritual liberation or union. Path accessible to all, irrespective of social status, gender, or religious background.

Monotheism / Qualified Monotheism

Nirguna Bhakti (Kabir, Nanak) preached strict monotheism. Sufism emphasized strict monotheism (Allah) often interpreted mystically (Wahdat-ul-Wujud).

Critique of Ritualism & Caste

Rejected elaborate rituals, sacrifices, and external observances. Actively preached against the rigid caste system and untouchability. Dargahs open to all.

Use of Regional Languages

Saints composed poetry and songs in local vernaculars (Hindi, Marathi, Tamil, Punjabi, Urdu, Persian), making teachings accessible and contributing to literary development.

Guru's Importance (Pir/Murshid)

Emphasized the crucial role of a spiritual teacher (Guru in Bhakti, Pir/Murshid in Sufism) to guide the devotee on the path to spiritual realization.

Emotional Worship

Stressed emotional outpouring, ecstatic chanting, and devotional singing (Kirtan, Bhajan, Qawwali, Sama) over dry intellectualism or rigid rituals.

Direct Connect with God

Believed in a direct, personal, and loving relationship between the devotee and God, without the need for intermediaries.

Humanism and Brotherhood

Promoted values of humanism, compassion, tolerance, and universal brotherhood, often transcending religious and social divides.

Syncretism (Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb)

Fostered interaction and blending of Hindu and Islamic traditions, leading to a unique composite culture.

9.6.2: The Bhakti Movement

The Bhakti movement was a spiritual revolution within Hinduism, emphasizing devotion as the path to salvation.

Origins & Early Saints (South India)

Period: Emerged around the 6th-9th centuries CE in Tamil Nadu.

Alvars (Vaishnavite)

Devotees of Vishnu. Composed devotional hymns (Divya Prabandham) in Tamil.

E.g., Andal, Nammalvar.

Nayanars (Shaivite)

Devotees of Shiva. Composed devotional hymns (Tevaram) in Tamil.

E.g., Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar.

Impact: Their passionate, emotional poetry challenged the dominance of Vedic rituals and Sanskritic learning, making religion more accessible and personal. They used music and dance to spread their message. Alvars influenced Ramanujacharya's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta.

Factors for Spread to North India

Timeline: Spread to North India from the 12th-15th centuries CE onwards.

  • Socio-Religious Conditions: Rigidities of the caste system, complex rituals, and dissatisfaction with orthodox Brahmanism created a demand for accessible spirituality.
  • Influence of Sufism: Sufi mystics' emphasis on universal love, equality, and mystical devotion resonated with Bhakti. Shared emphasis on personal God and devotional music (Qawwali) created a receptive environment.
  • Rise of Regional Languages: Emergence of vibrant vernaculars provided a ready medium for Bhakti saints to reach the masses.
  • Simplicity and Inclusiveness: The simple message of devotion appealed to common people and marginalized sections.
  • Role of Acharyas: Philosophers like Ramananda (who brought Bhakti to North India) further facilitated its spread.
Saguna Bhakti (Worship of God with Attributes/Form)

Belief: Devotion to a God with form, qualities, and attributes (e.g., Rama, Krishna, Shiva, Devi).

Key Figures:

Ramanuja (11th-12th CE)

South Indian philosopher, propagated Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (qualified non-dualism), emphasizing Bhakti for all.

Madhva (13th CE)

South Indian philosopher, propagated Dvaita Vedanta (dualism), emphasized devotion to Vishnu.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (15th-16th CE)

Bengali saint, popularized ecstatic Krishna Bhakti through Kirtan and Sankirtan.

Tulsidas (16th-17th CE)

Composed Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi, devotional to Rama.

Surdas (16th CE)

Composed Sursagar in Braj Bhasha, devotional to Krishna's leelas.

Mirabai (15th-16th CE)

Rajput princess, composed passionate Padas in Braj Bhasha for Krishna.

Nirguna Bhakti (Worship of Formless God)

Belief: Devotion to a God without form, attributes, or qualities. Emphasized monotheism and inner spiritual experience.

Influence of Shankaracharya: While Nirguna is often associated with the concept of formless Brahman from Advaita Vedanta (Adi Shankaracharya, 8th CE), the Nirguna Bhakti saints simplified this concept for the masses.

Key Figures:

Kabir (15th CE)

Weaver saint, criticized ritualism, caste, and advocated monotheism, unity of God (Ram-Rahim as one).

Guru Nanak (15th-16th CE)

Founder of Sikhism, emphasized Ik Onkar (one God), equality, and inner devotion.

Dadu Dayal (16th CE)

Sant from Rajasthan, advocated universal love, truth, and devotion.

Raidas (15th CE)

Chamar saint, emphasized equality and devotion to a formless God.

Impact of Bhakti Movement:

Society

  • Challenged caste hierarchy, untouchability, and advocated for gender equality (women saints like Mirabai, Andal).
  • Fostered communal harmony, particularly through Nirguna saints (Kabir, Nanak).
  • Advocated for ethical living, truth, and compassion.

Religion

  • Revitalization of Hinduism: Provided a popular and accessible path.
  • Shifted emphasis from ritualism (Karma Marga) and dry philosophy (Jnana Marga) to Bhakti Marga.
  • Fueled the growth of Vaishnavism and Shaivism as mass movements.
  • Contributed to the development of temple worship and iconography.

Literature & Regional Languages

  • Elevated regional languages (Hindi/Braj/Awadhi, Marathi, Tamil, Kannada, Punjabi, Bengali, Odia, Assamese) to literary prestige.
  • Created a vast body of devotional poetry and prose (e.g., Ramcharitmanas, Sursagar, Abhangas, Divya Prabandham).

Music & Art

  • Led to the widespread popularity of Bhajans, Kirtans, Abhangas, and Shabad Gurbani.
  • Influenced themes and emotional content in classical music (e.g., Kritis in Carnatic).
  • Inspired unique iconography and artistic expressions in temple sculpture, painting, and folk arts.

Syncretism

Played a crucial role in the development of India's composite culture (Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb), fostering mutual respect between different religious traditions.

9.6.3: The Sufi Movement

Sufism, the mystical dimension of Islam, found fertile ground in India and profoundly interacted with indigenous traditions.

Shared Goal & Commonalities

  • Shared Goal: Both Sufism and Bhakti/Yoga shared the ultimate goal of direct, personal experience of God/ultimate reality.
  • Mystical Experience: Emphasis on spiritual ecstasy, trance, and union with the divine.
  • Importance of Guru/Pir: Centrality of a spiritual guide.
  • Devotional Music: Use of music (Qawwali, Sama) as a means to achieve spiritual experience.
  • Asceticism & Meditation: Practices like breath control (pranayama equivalents), chanting (dhikr), and meditation (yoga-like postures) were observed.
  • Universal Love: Preaching of universal love, compassion, and humanism.

Sufi Adoption & Influence

  • Local Language: Sufi poets composed in local languages (Hindavi, Punjabi, Sindhi) to reach a wider audience.
  • Local Customs: Adoption of local customs, dress, and even some rituals.
  • Dargahs: Sufi shrines became syncretic centers where people of all faiths came for blessings.
  • Influence on Bhakti: Sufi emphasis on universal love, equality, and mystical experience influenced Nirguna Bhakti saints.
  • Bridge between Communities: Sufi saints acted as bridges between Hindu and Muslim communities, preaching tolerance and mutual respect.

Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb: A Composite Culture

The Sufi Movement significantly contributed to the development of a unique composite culture in India, characterized by shared language, literature, music, and social customs, transcending religious divides. This cultural ethos, often referred to as Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb, is a testament to the deep syncretism fostered by these movements.

Sufi Impact on Literature & Music:

Literature

  • Persian: Amir Khusrau's contributions.
  • Urdu: Sufi saints (e.g., Khwaja Bande Nawaz) were early pioneers of Dakhini Urdu.
  • Punjabi: Sufi poets like Baba Farid, Bulleh Shah, Shah Hussain enriched Punjabi literature with mystical poetry (Kafis).
  • Awadhi/Hindavi: Prem-Margi Sufi poets (Jayasi's Padmavat) blended Hindu folklore with Islamic mystical allegories.
  • Sindhi: Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai.

Music

  • Qawwali: A powerful form of Sufi devotional music, became highly popular.
  • Sama: Sufi musical gatherings for spiritual ecstasy.
  • Influence on Ghazal and Thumri: Contributed to the lyrical and emotional depth of these semi-classical forms in Hindustani music.

Significance:

Sufism enriched India's literary and musical landscape with a distinct mystical and humanistic flavor, fostering a syncretic cultural ethos.

9.6.4: Similarities & Differences

Despite their distinct origins, Bhakti and Sufi movements shared profound commonalities and also had notable distinctions.

Similarities:

  • Emphasis on Devotion: Both emphasized personal, intense devotion (Bhakti/Ishq) to God over external rituals.
  • Monotheistic/Monistic Tendencies: Both leaned towards belief in one God, whether with form or formless, or as an all-pervading reality.
  • Rejection of Orthodoxy: Both criticized the rigidities, formalism, and elitism of orthodox religious establishments.
  • Anti-caste/Egalitarian: Both promoted social equality, rejected caste distinctions (especially Nirguna Bhakti), and were inclusive towards all.
  • Use of Vernaculars: Both used local languages/dialects for their preachings and poetry, making them accessible to the masses.
  • Importance of Guru/Pir: Both emphasized the need for a spiritual guide.
  • Emotionalism & Music: Both used emotional expression and devotional music (Kirtan, Bhajan, Qawwali, Sama) to connect with the divine.
  • Humanism & Brotherhood: Both promoted compassion, tolerance, and universal brotherhood.
  • Syncretism: Both contributed to the development of a composite culture (Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb).

Differences:

Feature Bhakti Movement Sufi Movement
Origin Indigenous (Hinduism), rooted in Vedic/Upanishadic philosophy, Puranas, epics. Islamic, originating from Persia/Central Asia, rooted in Islamic mysticism.
God Concept Saguna (God with form - Rama, Krishna) and Nirguna (Formless God - Kabir, Nanak). Strictly Monotheistic (Allah), but with mystical interpretations (Wahdat-ul-Wujud).
Goal Moksha (liberation from samsara), union with God. Fana (annihilation of self in God), Baqa (subsistence in God).
Scripture Vedas, Upanishads, Epics, Puranas (though critically interpreted); regional texts. Quran, Hadith (though mystic interpretation); Persian/Urdu Sufi poetry.
Sectarianism Led to emergence of distinct Hindu sects (Vaishnava, Shaiva). Led to distinct Sufi orders (Silsilas - Chisti, Suhrawardi, Naqshbandi).
Monasticism Less emphasis on organized monasticism (more individual/family-based or wandering ascetics for some). Well-organized Silsilas with Khanqahs (hospices) and Dargahs.
Rejection of Idol Worship Only in Nirguna stream (Kabir, Nanak). Saguna emphasized idol worship. General rejection of idol worship.
Language of Scholarly Works Often Sanskrit for philosophical works; vernacular for devotional. Predominantly Persian for scholarly works; vernacular for poetry.
Main Deities Rama, Krishna, Shiva, Devi, Vitthala (Hindu Pantheon). Allah, Prophet Muhammad, Sufi Saints (Islamic context).

Significance: Despite their differences, the shared emphasis on devotion and humanism led to profound interactions and a rich cultural synthesis, making them two of the most impactful socio-religious movements in medieval India.

Current Affairs & Recent Developments

Stay updated on the contemporary relevance and ongoing developments related to Bhakti and Sufi heritage:

  • Cultural Diplomacy: India often highlights its Bhakti and Sufi heritage as part of its cultural diplomacy and soft power initiatives, especially with Islamic countries or through platforms like International Yoga Day.
  • Conservation of Dargahs and Temples: Ongoing conservation efforts by ASI and local trusts at Sufi Dargahs (e.g., Ajmer Sharif, Nizamuddin Auliya) and Bhakti temples (e.g., Pandharpur, Vrindavan, Puri) ensure the preservation of these pilgrimage sites.
  • Festivals: Annual celebrations of Urs at Sufi Dargahs and various Bhakti festivals (e.g., Ashadi Ekadashi for Varkaris, Janmashtami, Ram Navami) continue to draw millions, highlighting the living nature of these traditions.
  • Digital Outreach: Use of digital platforms for Bhajans, Kirtans, Qawwalis by devotional singers and organizations, reaching a wider global audience and aiding in digital archiving.
  • Revival of Literary Works: Promotion and translation of medieval Bhakti and Sufi literary works by organizations like Sahitya Akademi, making them accessible to a new generation.
  • Discussions on Syncretism: Contemporary discussions on social harmony and communal relations often reference the historical legacy of Bhakti and Sufi movements as models of syncretism and tolerance.

Conclusion

The Bhakti and Sufi movements were transformative spiritual currents in medieval India, profoundly reshaping its religious, social, and cultural fabric. Both shared a radical emphasis on personal devotion, strict monotheism (or qualified monotheism), and a powerful critique of orthodox ritualism and caste hierarchies, making spirituality accessible to all through regional languages and emotional worship.

The Bhakti Movement, originating in South India with Alvars and Nayanars and spreading north in Saguna (form-based) and Nirguna (formless) streams, led to a mass religious revival, enriching vernacular literature and popularizing devotional music. The Sufi Movement, a mystical dimension of Islam, profoundly interacted with Hindu Yogic and Bhakti traditions, fostering unparalleled communal harmony and a unique cultural synthesis (Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb), notably influencing Qawwali music and regional literature.

Despite their distinct origins and theological nuances, their shared values of humanism, universal love, and direct spiritual connection made them powerful forces for social change and cultural integration. The collective legacy of Bhakti and Sufi movements continues to define India's pluralistic ethos, embodying its spirit of tolerance, diversity, and enduring spiritual quest.

UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims MCQs

1. PYQ 2022 - Prelims

Q. In the context of the history of Indian arts and culture, which of the following statements is/are correct?

  1. The Dhrupad style of music evolved in the Carnatic tradition.
  2. Gharnaa system is a distinguishing feature of Hindustani classical music.
  3. The Thumri form of music is an important contribution of the Bhakti Movement.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

  • (a) 1 and 2 only
  • (b) 2 only
  • (c) 2 and 3 only
  • (d) 3 only
Show Answer & Explanation

Answer: (b)

Hint/Explanation: Statement 3 is often debated for Thumri's origin, but Bhajans and Kirtans are direct contributions of the Bhakti Movement. This question tests the influence of the Bhakti Movement on music (Subtopic 9.6.2.4).

2. PYQ 2021 - Prelims

Q. Pali as a language is mentioned in the context of:

  • (a) Buddhist scriptures
  • (b) Jain scriptures
  • (c) Vedic hymns
  • (d) Sufi poetry
Show Answer & Explanation

Answer: (a)

Hint/Explanation: This question (from ancient literature) provides a contrast to the languages of Bhakti and Sufi literature, which were primarily vernaculars or Persian/Urdu, highlighting the shift in linguistic mediums for religious expression.

3. PYQ 2018 - Prelims

Q. With reference to the cultural history of India, which one of the following is the correct description of the term 'paramitas'?

  • (a) The earliest Dharmashastra texts
  • (b) Buddhist philosophical schools
  • (c) Perfections whose attainment led to the Bodhisattva path
  • (d) Ancient Indian script
Show Answer & Explanation

Answer: (c)

Hint/Explanation: This question relates to Buddhist philosophy. The Bhakti and Sufi movements emerged partly as a reaction to the intellectualism of such earlier philosophical traditions, emphasizing devotion over complex philosophical systems or strict adherence to texts for the common person.

Mains Questions

1. PYQ 2021 - Mains (GS-I)

Q. Evaluate the nature of Bhakti literature and its contribution to Indian culture. (150 words)

Direction for Answer

Direction: This is a direct and excellent question on a core subtopic (9.6.2). A comprehensive answer would elaborate on its characteristics, major saints/works across regions, and its role in developing regional languages, promoting social equality, and popularizing devotional themes. This directly evaluates the content of the Bhakti movement.

2. PYQ 2015 - Mains (GS-I)

Q. How do the different linguistic and cultural regions of India influence its foreign policy? (200 words)

Direction for Answer & Value Points

Direction: This question indirectly touches upon the cultural soft power derived from the legacy of Bhakti and Sufi movements (e.g., through Qawwali, devotional music) being promoted globally, influencing India's cultural diplomacy.

Value Points (linking to Bhakti/Sufi):

  • Soft Power: Promotion of Sufi music (Qawwali) and Bhakti philosophy abroad as a tool of soft power and cultural exchange, especially with Islamic and Southeast Asian countries.
  • Diaspora: Communities influenced by Bhakti/Sufi traditions (e.g., Sufi followers, Sikhs) in diaspora contribute to cultural ties.
  • Interfaith Dialogue: Legacy of syncretism from Bhakti/Sufi movements promotes India's image as a tolerant, pluralistic society in global forums.

3. PYQ 2013 - Mains (GS-I)

Q. Examine the relevance of the rock-cut architecture in understanding the early Indian history. (200 words)

Direction for Answer

Direction: This question about ancient art. While rock-cut architecture is earlier, medieval Bhakti and Sufi movements led to the construction and embellishment of numerous temples (Saguna Bhakti) and Dargahs (Sufism), which are key architectural and cultural sites. This illustrates the continuity of religious architectural patronage and evolution, providing a tangential link.

4. More relevant specific Mains Question (UPSC style):

Q. "The Bhakti and Sufi movements, despite their distinct origins, profoundly shaped medieval Indian society by fostering communal harmony and a unique cultural synthesis." Discuss the similarities and interactions between these two movements in India. (250 words)

Value Points for Answer
  • Introduction: Acknowledge both movements as transformative, initially distinct but profoundly interacting.
  • Similarities:
    • Devotion & Emotionalism: Emphasis on personal, intense love for God (Bhakti/Ishq).
    • Critique of Orthodoxy: Rejection of ritualism, dogma, and elaborate ceremonies.
    • Egalitarianism/Anti-caste: Advocated social equality, open to all castes/creeds/genders.
    • Guru/Pir's Importance: Centrality of a spiritual guide.
    • Use of Vernaculars: Composed poetry/songs in local languages.
    • Music: Used devotional music (Bhajan, Kirtan, Qawwali, Sama).
    • Humanism: Universal message of love and compassion.
  • Interactions / Cultural Synthesis (Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb):
    • Shared Mysticism: Sufi emphasis on Wahdat-ul-Wujud resonated with Hindu monistic (Advaita) and qualified non-dualistic philosophies.
    • Mutual Influence: Bhakti Nirguna saints (Kabir, Nanak) influenced by Sufi monotheism. Sufis adopted Yogic practices (pranayama) and Indian philosophical concepts.
    • Dargahs as Syncretic Centers: Sufi shrines became places of pilgrimage for both Hindus and Muslims.
    • Shared Language: Development of common poetic forms and languages (e.g., Urdu, Hindavi/Awadhi in Sufi Prem-Margi poetry, Punjabi Sufi poetry).
    • Shared Music: Qawwali and Bhajans sometimes shared melodic structures or lyrical themes.
  • Conclusion: Conclude that the Bhakti and Sufi movements, driven by their shared emphasis on devotion and humanism, created a powerful spiritual and cultural dialogue, resulting in a unique composite culture that continues to define India's pluralistic identity.

UPSC Trend Analysis

Over the last 10 years, UPSC's questioning style for Bhakti and Sufi Movements has shown:

Prelims:

  • Core Characteristics: Most common area. Questions on their shared features (emphasis on devotion, anti-caste, use of vernaculars, importance of Guru/Pir).
  • Key Saints/Figures: Frequent questions on prominent Bhakti saints (Kabir, Nanak, Tulsidas, Surdas, Mirabai, Chaitanya, Tukaram) and Sufi saints (Moinuddin Chisti, Nizamuddin Auliya, Baba Farid).
  • Sects/Streams: Distinguishing Saguna vs. Nirguna Bhakti, and major Sufi Silsilas.
  • Influence: Impact on regional languages, music (Qawwali), and literature.
  • Syncretism: Questions related to the concept of Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb.
  • UNESCO Status: Manipuri Sankirtana (dance/music but linked to Bhakti).

Mains:

  • Contribution to Indian Culture: Dominant theme. How both movements contributed to a composite culture, social harmony, and language development.
  • Similarities and Differences: Analytical questions explicitly asking for a comparison and contrast between Bhakti and Sufi movements.
  • Socio-Religious Impact: Discussion of their role in challenging orthodoxy, promoting equality, and revitalizing religious traditions.
  • Interaction and Synthesis: Analyzing how these movements influenced each other and indigenous traditions (e.g., Yogic practices in Sufism).
  • Legacy: Their enduring impact on Indian society and spirituality.

Overall, UPSC expects a deep, analytical understanding of these movements as crucial forces of social and religious change, emphasizing their syncretic nature and broad cultural impact.

Original MCQs for Prelims

1. Q. With reference to the Bhakti Movement in India, which of the following statements is/are correct?

  1. The Alvars were Vaishnavite saints who composed devotional hymns in Tamil.
  2. Nirguna Bhakti refers to the worship of God with attributes and a specific form.
  3. Tulsidas and Surdas were prominent Nirguna Bhakti saints of the North Indian Hindi belt.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

  • (a) 1 only
  • (b) 1 and 2 only
  • (c) 2 and 3 only
  • (d) 1, 2 and 3
Show Answer & Explanation

Answer: (a)

  • Explanation:
  • Statement 1 is correct. Alvars were Vaishnavite saints from South India.
  • Statement 2 is incorrect. Nirguna Bhakti refers to the worship of a formless God (without attributes). Saguna Bhakti is the worship of God with attributes/form.
  • Statement 3 is incorrect. Tulsidas (Rama Bhakti) and Surdas (Krishna Bhakti) were prominent Saguna Bhakti saints, not Nirguna. Kabir and Nanak were Nirguna saints.

2. Q. Consider the following statements about the similarities between Bhakti and Sufi movements in medieval India:

  1. Both emphasized personal devotion and emotional worship over rigid ritualism.
  2. Both actively preached against the caste system and promoted social equality.
  3. Both exclusively used Persian as their medium of poetic expression.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

  • (a) 1 only
  • (b) 1 and 2 only
  • (c) 2 and 3 only
  • (d) 1, 2 and 3
Show Answer & Explanation

Answer: (b)

  • Explanation:
  • Statement 1 is correct. This is a core shared characteristic.
  • Statement 2 is correct. Both movements were largely egalitarian and inclusive.
  • Statement 3 is incorrect. While Persian was used by many Sufi poets, both movements extensively used regional vernacular languages (Hindi, Punjabi, Marathi, Tamil, etc.) for their compositions to reach the masses.