Introduction & Summary
Droughts, often slow-onset and protracted hazards, are among the most complex and devastating natural disasters, particularly for an agrarian economy like India. Their impacts ripple across agriculture, livelihoods, water security, and public health, often leading to large-scale distress migration and exacerbating socio-economic vulnerabilities. Understanding the causes and various types of droughts, identifying drought-prone areas of India, and implementing comprehensive management strategies are crucial. This topic delves into the multifaceted impacts of droughts, explores diverse mitigation and preparedness measures (water conservation, crop diversification), highlights drought monitoring and early warning systems, and examines the overarching National Drought Management Policy Framework and initiatives like the National Monsoon Mission, underscoring the imperative for a proactive, integrated, and climate-resilient approach to drought management.
4.4.1. Causes, Types, Drought-prone Areas of India
Causes of Droughts
- Deficiency of Rainfall: Primary cause, particularly during the monsoon season in India.
- High Temperatures & Evaporation: Increased temperatures lead to higher evaporation rates, intensifying water stress.
- Inefficient Water Management: Over-extraction of groundwater, unsustainable irrigation practices, and poor management of surface water bodies.
- Land Degradation: Deforestation, soil erosion, and desertification reduce the land's capacity to retain moisture.
- Climate Change: Leads to erratic monsoon patterns, prolonged dry spells, increased frequency and intensity of heatwaves, and shifts in precipitation, exacerbating drought conditions.
Drought-prone Areas of India
Around 35% of India's geographical area is drought-prone, affecting 68% of the country's cultivated area and about 12% of the population.
- Arid & Semi-arid regions: Parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra (Vidarbha, Marathwada), Karnataka (North Karnataka), Andhra Pradesh (Rayalaseema), Telangana, parts of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh (Bundelkhand), Tamil Nadu.
- Regions with Erratic Rainfall: Even regions with good average rainfall can face drought due to highly variable monsoon.
Source: IMD, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, NDMA Guidelines on Droughts.
Types (Stages of Drought)
Droughts typically progress through distinct stages, each with increasing severity and broader impacts.
Meteorological Drought
Defined by a significant deficiency of precipitation from the normal for a prolonged period (e.g., 25% or more deviation from normal rainfall). This is the initial stage.
Hydrological Drought
Occurs when reduced precipitation leads to low water levels in reservoirs, lakes, rivers, and groundwater. This is a consequence of meteorological drought.
Agricultural Drought
Insufficient soil moisture to support crop growth, leading to crop wilting, reduced yields, and eventual crop failure. This impacts the farming community directly.
Socio-economic Drought
Occurs when the physical water shortage begins to affect human activities and livelihoods, leading to economic losses, food insecurity, migration, and social unrest. This is the final stage of impact.
4.4.2. Impact
Agriculture & Livestock
- Crop Failure: Reduced yields, complete crop failure, economic losses.
- Livestock Losses: Shortage of fodder and water, distress sale or death.
Livelihoods & Migration
- Livelihood Loss: Increased unemployment, rural distress.
- Migration: Large-scale distress migration to urban areas.
Water Scarcity & Health
- Depletion of Water Bodies: Surface and groundwater depletion.
- Health Issues: Drinking water shortages, sanitation problems.
Food Security
- Reduced Production: Increased food prices.
- Malnutrition: Food insecurity, especially among vulnerable populations.
Environmental Impact
- Degradation: Land degradation, desertification, soil erosion.
- Ecosystem Loss: Biodiversity loss, increased forest fires.
Socio-Economic
- Economic Strain: Increased poverty, indebtedness, agrarian suicides.
- Social Unrest: Breakdown of rural economy.
Source: NDMA Guidelines on Droughts, Economic Survey of India.
4.4.3. Mitigation & Preparedness
Drought management emphasizes long-term strategies due to its slow-onset nature.
Water Conservation & Management
- Rainwater Harvesting: Capturing and storing rainwater (rooftop, community ponds).
- Micro-irrigation: Drip irrigation and sprinklers for efficient water use.
- Check Dams & Percolation Ponds: Structures for groundwater recharge.
- Watershed Management: Integrated development to conserve water, soil, and vegetation.
- Interlinking of Rivers: Proposed to transfer surplus water (highly debated).
Crop Diversification & Resilience
- Crop Diversification: Shifting from water-intensive crops (e.g., paddy, sugarcane) to less water-demanding or drought-resistant crops (e.g., millets, pulses, oilseeds).
- Drought-resistant crops: Promoting genetically modified or traditionally resilient crop varieties.
- Afforestation/Re-vegetation: Planting trees to retain soil moisture and prevent erosion.
Livelihood Support & Livestock
- MGNREGA: Provides guaranteed wage employment in rural areas, particularly for water conservation works.
- Significance: Crucial livelihood support during drought, preventing distress migration.
Livestock Management:
- Promoting drought-resistant fodder, fodder banks, and scientific livestock rearing practices.
Source: NDMA Guidelines on Droughts, Ministry of Water Resources, Ministry of Agriculture.
4.4.4. Drought Monitoring & Early Warning
Agencies Involved
- IMD (India Meteorological Department): Primary agency for monitoring meteorological drought based on rainfall deficiency. Issues weekly and seasonal rainfall forecasts.
- NRSC (National Remote Sensing Centre, ISRO): Uses satellite data for drought monitoring (e.g., vegetation indices, surface water bodies), providing crucial inputs for agricultural and hydrological drought assessment.
- Central Water Commission (CWC): Monitors water levels in rivers and reservoirs.
Indicators & Significance
- Indicators: Rainfall anomaly, Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), Vegetation Condition Index (VCI), soil moisture, reservoir levels, and groundwater levels.
- Data Integration: Integrating meteorological, hydrological, and agricultural data for comprehensive drought assessment and early warning.
Significance: Early warning allows for proactive measures like crop planning, water rationing, and activating relief measures, minimizing impacts.
Source: IMD, ISRO, NDMA.
4.4.5. National Drought Management Policy Framework, National Monsoon Mission
National Drought Management Policy Framework
- Context: India has evolved its drought management strategy from reactive relief to proactive, long-term mitigation. The NDMP 2016 (National Disaster Management Plan) provides the current framework.
- Focus: Emphasis on preparedness, mitigation, and building resilience through water conservation, crop diversification, early warning, and sustainable land management.
- Key Principles: Risk-based approach, vulnerability reduction, inter-sectoral coordination, and community participation.
- Nodal Ministry: Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (Ministry of Agriculture) is the nodal department for drought management.
National Monsoon Mission (NMM)
- Establishment: Launched by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).
- Objective: To improve monsoon rainfall prediction (both seasonal and extended range) using state-of-the-art dynamical prediction models.
- Significance: Accurate monsoon prediction is crucial for agricultural planning, water resource management, and overall drought preparedness. Improved seasonal forecasts can help farmers make informed decisions about crop selection and sowing.
Source: NDMP 2016, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Earth Sciences.
Conclusion & Way Forward
Droughts present a chronic and escalating challenge for India, exacerbated by climate change and unsustainable resource management. Moving beyond a reactive "fire-fighting" approach, effective drought management demands a holistic, proactive, and integrated strategy.
This involves robust water conservation and management, promoting climate-resilient agriculture (crop diversification, drought-resistant varieties), strengthening early warning and monitoring systems, and leveraging programs like MGNREGA for livelihood support. The National Drought Management Policy Framework and initiatives like the National Monsoon Mission are crucial steps. By prioritizing long-term mitigation, sustainable practices, and community participation, India can significantly enhance its resilience to droughts, safeguard livelihoods, and ensure its long-term food and water security.
Prelims-ready Notes
- Rainfall deficiency, high temps, inefficient water management, land degradation, climate change.
- Meteorological: Deficiency of rainfall.
- Hydrological: Low water levels (reservoirs, rivers, groundwater).
- Agricultural: Insufficient soil moisture for crops.
- Socio-economic: Impact on livelihoods, food security, migration.
- ~35% area, 68% cultivated. Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra (Vidarbha, Marathwada), Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana.
- Crop/Livestock failure, Livelihood loss, Water scarcity, Migration, Food insecurity, Environmental degradation.
- Water Conservation: Rainwater Harvesting, Micro-irrigation (drip, sprinkler), Check Dams, Watershed Management.
- Crop Diversification: From water-intensive to drought-resistant (millets, pulses).
- Drought-resistant crops.
- Afforestation.
- MGNREGA: Livelihood support, water conservation works.
- Agencies: IMD (meteorological), NRSC (ISRO - satellite data). CWC (water levels).
- Indicators: Rainfall anomaly, SPI, VCI.
- National Drought Management Policy Framework: NDMP 2016. Nodal Ministry: Dept of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare.
- National Monsoon Mission (MoES): Improve monsoon prediction using dynamical models.
Summary Table: Drought Management in India
| Aspect | Key Features/Challenges | India's Strategies/Initiatives | Examples/Impact |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vulnerability | 35% geographical area, 68% cultivated area prone | Drought-prone regions: Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka | Crop failures, migration, food insecurity |
| Causes/Types | Rainfall deficiency, Water mismanagement, Climate Change; Meteorological, Hydrological, Agricultural, Socio-economic | ||
| Impact | Agricultural losses, Livelihood disruption, Water scarcity, Migration, Food security | Agrarian distress, rural-urban migration | |
| Mitigation/Prep. | Long-term water management, Resilient agriculture | Rainwater Harvesting, Micro-irrigation, Crop Diversification, MGNREGA | Enhanced water availability, reduced farm distress |
| Monitoring/EWS | Accurate assessment & timely warning | IMD (rainfall), NRSC (satellite), CWC (water levels), NMM (prediction) | Improved early action, informed farming decisions |
| Policy | Shift to proactive, integrated approach | NDMP 2016, National Drought Management Policy Framework | Sustainable water use, climate resilience for agriculture |
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
Context:
Droughts are India's most widespread and protracted disaster, affecting large populations and agricultural areas annually. Climate change is increasing their frequency and intensity.
Impacts:
Multi-faceted impacts on agriculture (crop failure, livestock loss), livelihoods (rural distress, migration), water scarcity (drinking water, sanitation), and food security (price rise, malnutrition).
Causes of Vulnerability:
Beyond rainfall deficiency, emphasize human-induced factors like unsustainable groundwater extraction, inefficient irrigation, deforestation, and land degradation, which exacerbate natural droughts.
Shift to Proactive Management (Current Approach):
- Water Conservation: Rainwater harvesting, micro-irrigation, check dams, watershed management.
- Climate-Resilient Agriculture: Promoting crop diversification (millets over water-intensive crops), drought-resistant varieties, and resilient farming practices.
- Livelihood Support: MGNREGA providing wage employment and creating water-related assets.
- Early Warning & Monitoring: Leveraging IMD, NRSC (ISRO), CWC for accurate meteorological, hydrological, and agricultural drought assessment.
- National Monsoon Mission: Improving monsoon prediction.
Challenges:
- Implementation Gap, Groundwater Depletion, Behavioral Change (farmers), Financial Resources, Climate Variability.
Conclusion:
Droughts are a chronic crisis for India. A holistic, proactive, and integrated management approach that combines aggressive water conservation, climate-resilient agriculture, robust early warning, and livelihood diversification is essential for building long-term resilience and safeguarding the country's agrarian economy.
Context:
Water scarcity is a critical challenge in India, intricately linked with droughts.
Causes of Water Scarcity:
Erratic monsoons, over-extraction of groundwater (over 80% of irrigation comes from groundwater), inefficient irrigation, pollution, rapid urbanization, and climate change impacts.
Impacts of Water Scarcity (leading to droughts):
- Hydrological Drought, Agricultural Drought, Drinking Water Shortages, Inter-state Water Disputes.
India's Water Management Strategies for Drought Resilience:
- Water Conservation: Rainwater Harvesting (Jal Shakti Abhiyan), Micro-irrigation (PMKSY), Watershed Management.
- Supply-Side Augmentation: Dam & Reservoir Management, River Interlinking Projects (debated).
- Demand-Side Management: Crop Diversification, Water Pricing.
- Groundwater Regulation, Recycling & Reuse.
Challenges:
Policy implementation gaps, lack of community participation, inter-state water disputes, financial constraints, and political will.
Conclusion:
Managing water scarcity is paramount for building drought resilience in India. A holistic approach that integrates water conservation, efficient irrigation, demand-side management, and responsible groundwater governance, along with climate change adaptation, is essential for securing India's water future and minimizing drought impacts.
Context:
India's agriculture is heavily reliant on the monsoon. Climate change is making monsoon patterns more erratic.
National Monsoon Mission (NMM):
Launched by MoES, a scientific initiative to improve monsoon forecasting capabilities.
Strategic Imperative:
- Agricultural Planning, Water Resource Management, Drought Preparedness, Climate Change Adaptation, Reduced Economic Impact.
Capabilities & Achievements:
NMM uses state-of-the-art dynamical models for prediction, showing improved accuracy.
Challenges:
Monsoon prediction complexity, translating scientific forecasts into actionable information for farmers.
Conclusion:
The National Monsoon Mission is a critical strategic imperative for India. By enhancing the accuracy and lead time of monsoon predictions, it provides a vital tool for drought preparedness, strengthening agricultural sustainability, and building climate resilience.
Current Affairs and Recent Developments (Last 1 Year)
- Uneven Monsoon Distribution (2023): Significant spatial and temporal variability, highlighting need for region-specific management.
- El Niño Conditions (2023-24): Concerns about potential impacts on monsoon rainfall, emphasizing NMM's role.
- Emphasis on Water Conservation: Schemes like Amrit Sarovar Mission, continued focus on rainwater harvesting.
- Crop Diversification for Resilience: Promotion of millets (International Year of Millets 2023) and pulses.
- IMD's Drought Monitoring: Continues to enhance capabilities, releasing weekly updates.
- MGNREGA's Role in Drought-affected Areas: Continues to provide vital livelihood support and water conservation.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Prelims MCQs
Question: The term "Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)" is sometimes mentioned in the news. It is primarily related to which of the following regions?
- (a) Western Ghats
- (b) Thar Desert
- (c) Himalayan Region
- (d) Coastal Plains of Odisha
Answer: (c)
Hint: GLOFs are a type of hydrological hazard, similar to floods, and their management is related to the broader framework of water resource management, which is critical for drought.
Question: 'Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana' (PMFBY) uses which of the following technologies for loss assessment?
- Remote Sensing
- Smartphones
- Drones
- GPS technology
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1, 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (d)
Hint: PMFBY is a key financial mechanism for enhancing economic resilience against drought impacts on farmers.
Question: Consider the following statements with reference to the 'Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030)':
- It is a legally binding international agreement.
- Its primary goal is to substantially reduce disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods, and health.
- It emphasizes strengthening disaster risk governance.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b)
Hint: The Sendai Framework guides all hazard management, including droughts, emphasizing risk reduction.
Mains Questions
Direction: This is a direct fit. Challenges in drought management (climate change impacts, unsustainable water use, migration, financial distress) are key challenges to overall DM.
Trend Analysis (Last 10 Years)
UPSC's questioning on Drought management in India has been a consistent and significant area, reflecting its chronic impact on the country's agrarian economy. The trend is towards analytical, policy-oriented, and climate change-linked questions.
Prelims:
- Earlier: Questions might have focused on basic definitions of drought types.
- Current Trend: Questions are more nuanced, testing the causes and impacts of drought, specific mitigation measures (rainwater harvesting, micro-irrigation, crop diversification), the role of monitoring agencies (IMD, NRSC), and government schemes (PMFBY, MGNREGA). Strong emphasis on climate change linkages and the shift to proactive management.
Mains:
- Earlier: Could ask for a descriptive account of drought causes or impacts.
- Current Trend: Questions are highly analytical and critical, requiring candidates to:
- Analyze the complexity: Of droughts as a socio-natural hazard, exacerbated by human activities and climate change.
- Evaluate the effectiveness and challenges: Of various water management strategies and crop diversification.
- Discuss the role of technology and forecasting: In early warning and agricultural planning (e.g., National Monsoon Mission).
- Address socio-economic impacts: Migration, livelihood loss, and the role of social safety nets.
- Integrate current affairs heavily: Using recent monsoon patterns, El Niño predictions, and government scheme outcomes.
- Focus on proactive measures: And building long-term resilience for agricultural sustainability.
Overall, UPSC demands a comprehensive, practical, and policy-oriented understanding of drought management in India, emphasizing the critical role of integrated water management, climate-resilient agriculture, and sustainable livelihood support.
Original MCQs for Prelims
Question 1: Which of the following types of drought is characterized by insufficient soil moisture to support crop growth, leading directly to reduced yields or crop failure?
- (a) Meteorological Drought
- (b) Hydrological Drought
- (c) Agricultural Drought
- (d) Socio-economic Drought
Answer: (c)
Explanation: Agricultural drought specifically refers to the impact on crop productivity due to soil moisture deficiency, which is crucial for farming. Meteorological is rainfall deficit, Hydrological is water body levels, and Socio-economic is broader societal impact.
Question 2: The 'National Monsoon Mission (NMM)' in India, launched by the Ministry of Earth Sciences, has the primary objective of:
- (a) Promoting large-scale afforestation and watershed development.
- (b) Improving monsoon rainfall prediction using dynamical models.
- (c) Providing immediate relief and rehabilitation during drought conditions.
- (d) Constructing dams and reservoirs to store monsoon runoff.
Answer: (b)
Explanation: The NMM is a scientific initiative focused on enhancing the accuracy of monsoon forecasts (both seasonal and extended-range) through advanced modeling, which is crucial for agricultural planning and drought preparedness.
Original Descriptive Questions for Mains
Question 1: "Droughts, a slow-onset disaster, pose a chronic threat to India's agrarian economy, with their impacts amplified by climate change and unsustainable water management practices. Analyze the multi-faceted impacts of droughts on various sectors in India and discuss the proactive mitigation and preparedness strategies required for building long-term drought resilience." (15 Marks)
Key Points/Structure:
- Introduction: Define drought as a slow-onset disaster. Assert its chronic threat to India, exacerbated by climate change and human activities.
- Multi-faceted Impacts of Droughts: Agriculture (crop failure, livestock), Livelihoods (unemployment, distress migration), Water Scarcity (depletion, health), Food Security (price rise, malnutrition), Environment (degradation, biodiversity loss), Socio-economic (poverty, indebtedness).
- Proactive Mitigation & Preparedness Strategies: Water Conservation & Management (rainwater harvesting, micro-irrigation, check dams, watershed management, interlinking), Climate-Resilient Agriculture (crop diversification, drought-resistant varieties, afforestation), Livelihood Diversification (MGNREGA), Early Warning & Monitoring (IMD, NRSC, data integration), Long-term Water Planning (groundwater regulation).
- Conclusion: Holistic, proactive, integrated approach crucial for long-term resilience and food/water security.
Question 2: "India's agricultural sector, heavily dependent on the monsoon, faces escalating vulnerabilities due to climate change-induced erratic rainfall patterns and increased incidence of droughts. Discuss the effectiveness of India's current policies and schemes in enhancing agricultural resilience against droughts and suggest further measures to mitigate the socio-economic impacts on farmers." (20 Marks)
Key Points/Structure:
- Introduction: Monsoon criticality, escalating vulnerability due to climate change.
- Effectiveness of Current Policies & Schemes: PMFBY (crop insurance - effectiveness & challenges), PMKSY (micro-irrigation, watershed - effectiveness & challenges), NMM (forecasting - effectiveness & challenges), NICRA (research), MGNREGA (livelihood), NFSA (food security).
- Further Measures: Aggressive Water Management (RWH, groundwater regulation), Mandatory Crop Diversification (incentivize millets/pulses), Value Chain Development (millets), Livelihood Diversification (non-farm), Expanded Micro-insurance, Early Drought Declaration & Aid, Research & Extension (lab-to-land), Policy Coherence.
- Conclusion: Comprehensive, integrated, and continuous effort needed. Strengthening water governance, climate-resilient farming, and safety nets paramount.