A Milestone in Global Cooperation
Adoption and Entry into Force
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was adopted in Montreal, Canada, on September 16, 1987, under the framework of the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer. It officially entered into force on January 1, 1989.
Signifying its importance, September 16th is celebrated annually as the International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer (World Ozone Day).
Universal Success
The Montreal Protocol is widely regarded as one of the most successful international environmental agreements and boasts universal ratification. India became a Party to the Montreal Protocol in June 1992.
Core Objective: Protecting Our Shield
The primary goal of the Montreal Protocol is to protect the stratospheric ozone layer by systematically phasing out the production and consumption of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion (Ozone Depleting Substances - ODS).
Key Features & Mechanisms
The Protocol lists specific ODS in its Annexes (A, B, C, E, F) and establishes legally binding timetables for Parties to phase out their production and consumption. Different schedules apply to developed (non-Article 5) and developing (Article 5) countries, recognizing common but differentiated responsibilities.
Examples of Controlled Substances:
- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): e.g., CFC-11, CFC-12. Used in refrigerants, aerosols. Largely phased out.
- Halons: Used in fire extinguishers. Very high ODP. Largely phased out.
- Carbon Tetrachloride (CTC): Solvent. Phased out.
- Methyl Chloroform: Solvent. Phased out.
- Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): Transitional substitutes for CFCs. Lower ODP but potent GHGs. Currently being phased out (2030 for developed, 2040 for developing countries).
- Methyl Bromide: Fumigant. Phased out for most uses (QPS allowed).
- Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs): Not ODS, but potent GHGs. Added via Kigali Amendment.
The Principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) is recognized by providing developing countries (Article 5 Parties) with grace periods for phasing out ODS and access to financial and technical assistance through the Multilateral Fund.
Established in 1991, the MLF provides financial and technical assistance to Article 5 country Parties to help them meet their ODS phase-out obligations. It is funded by contributions from developed (non-Article 5) country Parties and is considered a key factor in the Protocol's success.
Trade Provisions
The Protocol restricts trade in controlled ODS with non-Parties to encourage universal participation. Parties ban import/export of controlled substances from/to non-Parties.
Monitoring & Reporting
Parties report annually on ODS production, import, and export. Scientific, Environmental, and Technology & Economic Assessment Panels (TEAP) provide regular assessments.
Adjustments & Amendments
A dynamic instrument, the Protocol can be adjusted (accelerate phase-outs, binding) or amended (add new substances, requires ratification). Key amendments: London, Copenhagen, Vienna, Montreal, Beijing, Kigali.
Non-Compliance Procedure
An Implementation Committee reviews non-compliance, recommending facilitative measures to bring Parties back into compliance.
Focus on Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
E.g., CFC-11, CFC-12. Used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, solvents, foam-blowing agents. Largely phased out globally.
Halons
Used in fire extinguishers. Very high Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP). Largely phased out.
Carbon Tetrachloride (CTC)
Used as a solvent and in production of CFCs. Phased out.
Methyl Chloroform
(1,1,1-Trichloroethane): Used as a solvent. Phased out.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
Transitional substitutes for CFCs, lower ODP but still ODS and potent GHGs. Being phased out.
Methyl Bromide
Fumigant for pest control. Phased out for most uses; QPS uses allowed.
The Kigali Amendment: Addressing HFCs
Key Dates
Adopted: October 2016 (Kigali, Rwanda)
Entered into force: January 1, 2019
Background & Objective
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) were alternatives to CFCs/HCFCs, not depleting ozone. However, HFCs are potent greenhouse gases (GHGs) with high Global Warming Potentials (GWPs), contributing to climate change.
The Kigali Amendment aims to phase down the production and consumption of HFCs globally.
Mechanism
- Adds HFCs to the list of controlled substances (New Annex F).
- Establishes specific HFC phase-down schedules for different country groups.
- Aims for an 80-85% reduction in HFC consumption by the late 2040s.
- Expected to avoid up to 0.4°C of global warming by 2100.
India and the Kigali Amendment
India ratified the Kigali Amendment in September 2021.
India's phase-down schedule (later group):
- Baseline: Average HFC consumption in 2024-2026.
- Freeze Date: 2028.
- First reduction: 10% below baseline by 2032.
- Ultimate reduction: 85% below baseline by 2047.
India has developed a national strategy for HFC phase-down.
A Journey of Milestones
Montreal Protocol Adopted
Signed in Montreal, Canada, on September 16.
Entry into Force
The Protocol officially becomes international law on January 1.
Multilateral Fund Established
To assist developing countries in meeting their obligations.
India Becomes a Party
India joins the Montreal Protocol in June.
Key Amendments
London (1990), Copenhagen (1992), Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997), Beijing (1999) strengthen the Protocol.
Kigali Amendment Adopted
Addresses HFCs to mitigate climate change, adopted in Kigali, Rwanda.
India Ratifies Kigali Amendment
India formally agrees to the HFC phase-down commitments in September.
Triumphs of the Protocol
Ozone Layer Protection
Dramatic reduction (over 98-99%) in global production and consumption of major ODS.
Ozone Layer Recovery
Scientific assessments show the ozone layer is healing; Antarctic ozone hole showing signs of recovery.
Avoided Health Impacts
Prevented millions of cases of skin cancer, cataracts, and immune system suppression.
Climate Co-benefits
Phase-out of ODS (many are GHGs) significantly mitigated climate change. Kigali Amendment targets HFCs (GHGs).
Model for Cooperation
Demonstrates effective global environmental problem-solving through science, CBDR, financial aid, and adaptive management.
Stimulated Innovation
Led to development and adoption of ODS-free technologies and alternative substances.
Ongoing Challenges & Future Outlook
Illegal Trade & Smuggling
Some illicit trade in phased-out ODS still occurs, requiring vigilance.
Management of ODS Banks
Large quantities of ODS in existing equipment (e.g., old refrigerators, ACs) need proper management and destruction to prevent leaks.
HCFC Phase-out Completion
Completing HCFC phase-out, especially in developing countries, needs continued effort and support.
HFC Phase-down (Kigali)
Implementing HFC phase-down presents challenges for energy-efficient, climate-friendly alternatives in RAC sector, especially with growing demand.
Unexpected Emissions
Occasional reports of unexpected ODS emissions (e.g., CFC-11) require monitoring and enforcement.
Interaction with Climate Change
Climate change itself can affect ozone recovery. Some ODS alternatives might have other environmental concerns (e.g., TFA from HFOs).
Relevance for Competitive Exams (UPSC)
Prelims Focus Areas
- Vienna Convention (framework, year)
- Montreal Protocol (objective, year, ODS focus)
- Ozone layer (importance, depletion causes)
- Key ODS (CFCs, Halons, HCFCs, HFCs) & ODP concept
- Multilateral Fund
- Kigali Amendment (HFCs, climate co-benefit, India's role)
- World Ozone Day
Mains (GS Paper III) Insights
Highly probable questions:
- Success of Montreal Protocol as an international treaty and lessons for other global challenges (e.g., climate change).
- Ozone layer depletion: causes, impacts, provisions of Montreal Protocol & Kigali Amendment.
- India's role in Montreal Protocol and its HFC phase-down strategy.
Related Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
"Consider the following statements: Chlorofluorocarbons, known as ozone-depleting substances, are used
- in the production of plastic foams
- in the production of tubeless tyres
- in cleaning certain electronic components
- as pressurizing agents in aerosol cans
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?"
Answer: (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (Not typically used in tubeless tyre production).
"The formation of ozone hole in the Antarctic region has been a cause of concern. What could be the reason for the formation of this hole?"
Answer: (b) Presence of prominent polar front and stratospheric clouds; and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons (Polar stratospheric clouds - PSCs - play a key role).
"The 'Kigali Amendment' to the Montreal Protocol is related to:"
Answer: Phasing down Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).