Introduction
The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change. It was adopted by 196 Parties at the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21) to the UNFCCC in Paris, France, on December 12, 2015.
It entered into force on November 4, 2016, after achieving the required threshold of ratification by at least 55 Parties to the Convention, accounting in sum for at least an estimated 55% of total global greenhouse gas emissions. India ratified the Paris Agreement on October 2, 2016.
Goal of the Paris Agreement (Article 2)
Limit Temperature Rise
Hold the increase in global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5°C.
Enhance Adaptation & Resilience
Increase the ability to adapt to adverse climate impacts, foster climate resilience, and low GHG emissions development, without threatening food production.
Align Finance Flows
Make finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development.
Key Features and Provisions
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
A cornerstone of the Paris Agreement, adopting a bottom-up approach. Each Party prepares, communicates, and maintains successive NDCs it intends to achieve.
- Represent each country's efforts to reduce national emissions and adapt to climate change impacts.
- Parties submit new/updated NDCs every five years, with increasing ambition (principle of progression).
- Submission is mandatory, but achievement of targets is not strictly legally binding under international law like Kyoto targets. "Contribution" implies voluntary determination of effort.
Ambition Mechanism (Global Stocktake - GST)
Assesses collective progress towards the Agreement's purpose and long-term goals. Undertaken every five years, starting in 2023.
- Informs Parties in updating and enhancing their NDCs and international cooperation.
- Critical for ratcheting up ambition over time.
Mitigation (Article 4)
Parties aim to reach global peaking of GHG emissions as soon as possible (longer for developing countries).
- Undertake rapid reductions thereafter based on best available science.
- Goal: Achieve a balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks in the second half of this century (net-zero emissions).
- Each Party shall prepare, communicate and maintain successive NDCs.
Adaptation (Article 7)
Establishes a global goal on adaptation: enhancing adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience, and reducing vulnerability.
- Recognizes adaptation as a global challenge with diverse dimensions.
- Requires Parties to engage in adaptation planning (e.g., National Adaptation Plans - NAPs).
- Calls for enhanced support (finance, technology, capacity building) for developing countries.
Loss and Damage (Article 8)
Acknowledges the importance of averting, minimizing, and addressing loss and damage from climate change (extreme weather, slow onset events).
- The Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage (WIM) was enhanced and strengthened.
- Explicitly states that Article 8 does not involve or provide a basis for any liability or compensation (a contentious issue).
Finance (Article 9)
Reaffirms developed countries' obligation to provide financial resources to assist developing countries.
- Encourages other Parties to provide support voluntarily.
- Developed countries committed to jointly mobilizing USD 100 billion per year by 2020 (extended to 2025).
- A new collective quantified goal for climate finance (from a floor of USD 100 billion/year) to be set by 2025.
Technology Development and Transfer (Article 10)
Aims to strengthen cooperative action on technology development and transfer for mitigation and adaptation.
- Establishes a technology framework to guide the Technology Mechanism (TEC and CTCN).
Capacity Building (Article 11)
Recognizes the need to enhance capacity of developing countries (especially LDCs and SIDS) for effective climate action.
- The Paris Committee on Capacity-building (PCCB) was established.
Transparency Framework (ETF - Article 13)
Establishes a common framework for transparency of action and support, with flexibility for different capacities.
- Requires Parties to regularly report on GHG inventories, NDC progress, and support provided/received via Biennial Transparency Reports (BTRs).
- Reports subject to technical expert review and multilateral consideration of progress.
- Replaces previous MRV systems.
Market and Non-Market Mechanisms (Article 6)
Provides for voluntary cooperation among Parties for higher ambition.
- Article 6.2: "Cooperative approaches" using internationally transferred mitigation outcomes (ITMOs).
- Article 6.4: New mechanism (Sustainable Development Mechanism - SDM) for mitigation and sustainable development (successor to CDM). Share of proceeds for admin and adaptation.
- Article 6.8: Non-market approaches (NMAs).
- Rules largely finalized at COP26 (Glasgow, 2021), focusing on avoiding double counting and ensuring environmental integrity.
Key Milestones
Adoption of Paris Agreement
At COP21 in Paris, France by 196 Parties.
India Ratifies
India officially joins the Paris Agreement.
Entry into Force
Agreement becomes operational after meeting ratification thresholds.
First Global Stocktake (GST)
Commencement of the first 5-yearly review of collective progress.
Key Differences from Kyoto Protocol
| Feature | Paris Agreement | Kyoto Protocol |
|---|---|---|
| Applicability | Universal (all Parties submit NDCs) | Binding targets for Annex I (developed) countries only |
| Approach to Targets | Bottom-up (Nationally Determined Contributions - NDCs) | Top-down (internationally negotiated targets) |
| Differentiation | Acknowledges differentiation (CBDR-RC), but moves away from rigid Annex I / Non-Annex I bifurcation for mitigation | Strict bifurcation (Annex I / Non-Annex I) |
| Long-Term Goals | Clear temperature goals (well below 2°C, pursue 1.5°C); net-zero goal | Overall emission reduction target for Annex I countries collectively, no explicit long-term temperature goal in the protocol text itself. |
| Transparency | Enhanced Transparency Framework (common for all, with flexibility) | Separate reporting/review systems for Annex I and Non-Annex I |
| Adaptation & Loss/Damage | Stronger focus, dedicated articles and mechanisms | Less emphasis compared to Paris |
| Ambition Mechanism | Regular Global Stocktake to ratchet up ambition | Commitment periods with new negotiations for subsequent periods |
India's Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
First NDC (2015)
- Reduce emissions intensity of GDP by 33-35% by 2030 (from 2005 level).
- Achieve ~40% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel based energy resources by 2030.
- Create additional carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent via forest/tree cover by 2030.
Updated NDC (August 2022)
- Reduce Emissions Intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030 (from 2005 level).
- Achieve ~50% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030.
- (Carbon sink target remains the same).
- Propagate a healthy and sustainable way of living via ‘LIFE’– ‘Lifestyle for Environment’.
This chart illustrates India's commitment to reducing GDP emission intensity.
Panchamrit (Five Nectar Elements) - COP26, Glasgow 2021
Non-fossil energy capacity to 500 GW by 2030.
50% energy requirements from renewable energy by 2030.
Reduce total projected carbon emissions by 1 billion tonnes by 2030.
Reduce carbon intensity of economy by less than 45% by 2030 (formalized in updated NDC).
Achieve Net Zero by 2070.
These Panchamrit commitments informed India's updated NDC.
Challenges for the Paris Agreement
Ambition Gap
Current NDCs are insufficient to meet temperature goals.
Implementation Gap
Translating NDCs into effective domestic policies and actions.
Climate Finance
Meeting the USD 100 billion/year goal and future needs; transparency issues.
Equity & CBDR-RC
Ongoing debates on fairness and differentiation with universal participation.
Geopolitics & National Interests
Can hinder collective action.
Article 6 Robustness
Ensuring integrity and avoiding double counting in carbon markets.
Addressing Loss & Damage
Developing adequate financial and institutional support for unavoidable impacts.
UPSC Relevance
Prelims Focus:
- Year of adoption and entry into force.
- Key goals (temperature targets).
- Core concepts: NDCs, Global Stocktake, ETF, Loss and Damage (WIM), Climate Finance ($100bn goal), Article 6.
- Differences from Kyoto Protocol.
- India's NDCs (key targets), Panchamrit.
Mains Focus (GS Paper III - Environment, IR):
- Salient features of Paris Agreement vs. Kyoto Protocol. Critical evaluation.
- India's commitments (NDCs) and challenges.
- Principle of 'CBDR-RC' evolution and relevance.
- Questions on climate finance, technology transfer, loss and damage.
Related Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Prelims 2016: 'Intended Nationally Determined Contributions'
"The term 'Intended Nationally Determined Contributions' is sometimes seen in the news in the context of:"
- (a) Pledges made by the European countries to rehabilitate refugees
- (b) Plan of action outlined by the countries of the world to combat climate change
- (c) Capital contributed by the member countries in the establishment of Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
- (d) Plan of action outlined by the countries of the world regarding Sustainable Development Goals
Answer: (b)
Prelims 2016: UNFCCC Meeting in Paris 2015
"With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?
- The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017.
- The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2 °C or even 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels.
- Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.
Select the correct answer using the code given below."
- (a) 1 and 3 only
- (b) 2 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b) (Statement 1 is incorrect on entry date and "all UN members signed" immediacy. Statement 3 is incorrect on amount [$100 billion, not $1000 billion] and "donate" wording.)
Mains 2021: COP26 Outcomes & India's Commitments
"Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP26) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference?" (UPSC Mains 2021, GS Paper III)
(This question requires a descriptive answer covering Glasgow Climate Pact, Article 6 rulebook finalization, adaptation finance, and India's 'Panchamrit' commitments detailed earlier.)