What is COP?
The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the supreme decision-making body of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). All States that are Parties to the Convention are represented at the COP, where they review the implementation of the Convention and any other legal instruments the COP adopts (like the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement) and take decisions necessary to promote the effective implementation of the Convention.
Functioning of COPs
Frequency
COPs are held annually, unless Parties decide otherwise. They are usually hosted by different countries.
Decision-Making
Decisions at COPs are generally taken by consensus. This can make negotiations complex and lengthy, as agreement from nearly 200 Parties is required.
Agenda
Covers a wide range of issues related to climate change, including mitigation, adaptation, finance, technology transfer, capacity building, transparency, loss and damage, and specific mechanisms.
High-Level Segment
COPs often include a high-level segment attended by ministers and heads of state, which can provide political impetus to the negotiations.
Role of Observers
Observer organizations (e.g., UN agencies, NGOs, business groups) participate, contributing through side events and advocacy, though not in formal decision-making.
CMP (Kyoto Protocol)
CMP (Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol) meets annually in conjunction with the COP to review the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol.
CMA (Paris Agreement)
CMA (Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement) meets annually in conjunction with the COP to review the implementation of the Paris Agreement.
Significance of COPs
- Provide a platform for international climate negotiations and policy-making.
- Review progress and identify gaps in global climate action.
- Adopt decisions, guidelines, and frameworks to advance climate action.
- Mobilize political will and public attention on climate change.
- Facilitate pledges and commitments from countries and other stakeholders.
Historical Landmark COPs
Launched a process to negotiate strengthened commitments for developed countries, leading to the Kyoto Protocol.
Established legally binding emission reduction targets for industrialized countries.
Detailed the rules for implementing the Kyoto Protocol (e.g., for its flexibility mechanisms).
Initiated negotiations for a post-2012 climate agreement and formally recognized REDD+.
Non-binding. Acknowledged the 2°C goal and the USD 100 billion/year finance pledge by 2020.
Formally incorporated Copenhagen Accord elements, established Green Climate Fund (GCF), Adaptation Framework, Technology Mechanism.
Initiated negotiations for a new legal instrument applicable to all Parties (leading to Paris Agreement).
Established the WIM and adopted the Warsaw Framework for REDD+.
Landmark agreement to limit global warming, with NDCs from all countries.
Recent COPs & Their Outcomes
For UPSC preparation, focus on the COP immediately preceding your exam year and perhaps the one before that, along with any major breakthroughs or contentious issues. The outcomes are often in the form of "Pacts," "Decisions," or "Rulebooks."
COP26 (Glasgow, UK - 2021)
Context: First COP after Paris Agreement's five-year cycle, expecting enhanced NDCs. Held amidst COVID-19 and IPCC AR6 urgency.
Key Outcomes (Glasgow Climate Pact)
Mitigation and 1.5°C Goal:
- Reaffirmed Paris goal (well below 2°C, efforts for 1.5°C).
- Acknowledged need for rapid, deep GHG reductions (45% CO₂ by 2030 relative to 2010, net zero mid-century).
- Urged Parties to revisit/strengthen 2030 NDC targets by end of 2022.
- First COP decision to call for "phasedown of unabated coal power and phase-out of inefficient fossil fuel subsidies."
Adaptation:
- Urged developed countries to at least double collective adaptation finance by 2025 (from 2019 levels).
- Launched Glasgow–Sharm el-Sheikh work programme on Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA).
Climate Finance:
- Expressed "deep regret" USD 100 billion/year goal not met. Urged urgent fulfillment.
- Initiated deliberations on new collective quantified goal (NCQG) for post-2025.
Article 6 (Carbon Markets):
- Finalized rulebook for Article 6 (ITMOs, SDM).
- Measures to avoid double counting. Share of proceeds for adaptation.
- Transition of some Kyoto CDM projects/credits.
Loss and Damage:
- Acknowledged reality and increasing impacts.
- Established Glasgow Dialogue on funding arrangements.
- No dedicated "Loss and Damage Finance Facility" agreed, causing disappointment.
Enhanced Transparency Framework (ETF):
Further decisions to operationalize ETF.
Other Initiatives:
Pledges on deforestation (Global Methane Pledge, Glasgow Leaders’ Declaration on Forests and Land Use), finance for just transition, etc.
India's Commitments at COP26 (Panchamrit)
India announced its "Panchamrit" - five nectar elements - as its climate action commitments. These include targets for non-fossil energy capacity, renewable energy share, emissions reduction, emissions intensity reduction, and achieving net-zero emissions by 2070. (Detailed in section 9.3 of your study material).
COP27 (Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt - 2022)
Context: "Implementation COP," focusing on operationalizing commitments. Held amidst energy crisis, geopolitical tensions, and escalating climate impacts.
Key Outcomes (Sharm el-Sheikh Implementation Plan)
Loss and Damage Finance Facility (Major Breakthrough):
- Historic agreement to establish new funding arrangements, including a dedicated fund for loss and damage.
- Transitional Committee established to operationalize the fund for COP28.
Adaptation:
- Progress on Glasgow–Sharm el-Sheikh work programme on GGA.
- Developed countries again urged to double adaptation finance.
Mitigation:
- Reaffirmed 1.5°C goal.
- Launched a Mitigation Work Programme.
- Reiterated call for phasing down unabated coal and phasing out inefficient fossil fuel subsidies.
Climate Finance:
- Concern that USD 100 billion/year goal not yet met.
- Deliberations on NCQG for post-2025 continued.
- Calls for reform of Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs).
Just Transition:
Increased emphasis on ensuring fair, equitable, and inclusive transition to low-carbon economies.
Global Stocktake (GST):
First GST process underway, technical dialogues held. Outcomes for COP28.
Food Security and Agriculture:
Increased attention to links between climate change, agriculture, and food security.
COP28 (Dubai, UAE - 2023)
Illustrative Information
The following section on COP28 provides actual key outcomes. UPSC aspirants MUST continually update this with the latest official information and analyses for their exam year.
Anticipated Focus/Key Issues (Lead-up to COP28):
- First Global Stocktake (GST) Conclusion: Assessing progress, identifying gaps, calling for enhanced NDCs by 2025.
- Operationalization of the Loss and Damage Fund: Decisions on host, structure, governance, funding.
- Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA): Aim to adopt a framework.
- Climate Finance: Progress on NCQG post-2025, pressure on existing commitments.
- Fossil Fuel Phase-Out/Down: Intensified debate on language.
- Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency: Targets for tripling renewables, doubling energy efficiency by 2030.
- Food Systems and Agriculture: Growing attention.
- Health: First-ever "Health Day."
Actual Key Outcomes of COP28
Global Stocktake (GST) Decision:
- Acknowledged significant gaps in achieving Paris goals.
- Called on Parties to contribute to global efforts:
- Transitioning away from fossil fuels in energy systems (just, orderly, equitable manner, accelerating action this decade for net zero by 2050). *Significant language outcome.*
- Tripling renewable energy capacity globally and doubling global average annual rate of energy efficiency improvements by 2030.
- Substantially reducing non-CO₂ emissions (methane) by 2030.
- Accelerating zero- and low-emission technologies.
Loss and Damage Fund:
- Operationalized the fund.
- Pledges made (seen as initial, needing scale-up). World Bank selected as interim host.
Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA):
Adopted a framework for GGA (themes: water, food, health, ecosystems, etc.).
Finance:
Some new pledges for Green Climate Fund and Adaptation Fund. Deliberations on NCQG continued.
Other Initiatives:
Declarations on food systems, health, renewable energy.
General Trends & Challenges in Recent COPs
Increased Urgency
Driven by stark scientific warnings (IPCC reports) and visible climate impacts.
Focus on Implementation & Ambition
Shift from negotiating frameworks to implementing them and raising ambition.
Finance as a Key Bottleneck
Persistent gap between needs of developing countries and provision by developed countries. Trust deficit.
Loss and Damage Gaining Prominence
From a fringe issue to a central agenda item.
Fossil Fuel Debate
Growing pressure for explicit language on phasing out/down fossil fuels, facing resistance.
Role of Non-State Actors
Increasing involvement and influence of businesses, cities, civil society, indigenous peoples.
Geopolitical Context
Global events (pandemics, wars, energy crises) can impact the mood and outcomes of negotiations.
UPSC Relevance
Prelims Focus
- Key COPs (especially those adopting major agreements like Kyoto, Paris).
- Specific outcomes of recent COPs (e.g., Loss and Damage Fund, Global Methane Pledge, GST).
- Key terms and mechanisms discussed at COPs.
- India's stance and commitments at recent COPs.
Mains Focus (GS Paper III - Environment, IR)
Example Question Formats:
- "Discuss the major outcomes of the recent COP. How do these align with India's climate action goals?"
- "Annual COPs are crucial for global climate governance, but face challenges. Analyze."
- "Trace the evolution of international climate negotiations, highlighting key shifts."
- India's role and negotiating positions in COPs.
Tips for Keeping Up-to-Date
- Follow official UNFCCC website (unfccc.int).
- Read summaries from reputable sources (CSE, TERI, CEEW, Carbon Brief, WRI, Climate Action Tracker).
- Follow major newspapers and environment-focused journals.
- Focus on official outcome documents ("Decisions," "Pacts") for precise language.