Introduction/Summary
Social influence and persuasion are fundamental processes that shape human behavior, attitudes, and societal norms. Social influence refers to the ways in which individuals change their behavior to meet the demands of a social environment, encompassing conformity, obedience, and compliance. Persuasion is a more deliberate attempt to change attitudes or behaviors through communication.
Understanding these concepts is crucial not only for social psychology but also for effective public service, policy formulation, and fostering positive behavioral change in society. The Indian government's initiatives like Swachh Bharat Abhiyan and COVID-19 awareness campaigns are prime examples of leveraging these principles for the public good.
Persuasion
Persuasion is a conscious and active attempt to change attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of others through communication.
Elements of Persuasion (Hovland's Model)
Source (Communicator)
- Credibility: Expertise (knowledge, skills) and trustworthiness (perceived honesty, objectivity). Example: A doctor advocating for vaccination.
- Attractiveness: Physical appeal, likeability, similarity to the audience. Example: Celebrities endorsing products.
Message (Communication)
- Clarity: Easily understood, well-organized.
- Emotional Appeal: Arousing emotions like fear, joy, guilt. Fear appeals are effective if they provide a clear way to avoid the feared outcome. Example: Anti-smoking campaigns showing graphic images.
- Rational Appeal: Use of logic, facts, and evidence.
- One-sided vs. Two-sided Messages: Two-sided messages (presenting both pros and cons, then refuting cons) can be more effective if the audience is initially opposed or well-informed.
- Primacy vs. Recency Effect: Information presented first (primacy) or last (recency) can be more persuasive depending on timing.
Receiver (Audience)
- Intelligence: More intelligent audiences are less easily persuaded by weak arguments but more influenced by strong, logical ones.
- Self-Esteem: Individuals with moderate self-esteem are often easier to persuade than those with high or low self-esteem.
- Initial Attitude: Pre-existing attitudes heavily influence susceptibility to persuasion.
- Age: Younger people are generally more susceptible to attitude change.
Channel (Medium)
- The medium through which the message is delivered (e.g., face-to-face, print, television, internet, social media).
- Complex messages are better delivered through print. Simple messages via audio-visual media.
- Social media has become a powerful channel for both positive persuasion and misinformation. (IGNOU, Social Psychology; NCERT Class 12 Psychology)
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
Developed by Petty and Cacioppo (1986). Proposes two main routes through which persuasion occurs: (NCERT Class 12 Psychology, Chapter 6)
Central Route:
Occurs when people are motivated and able to think carefully about the message content. Focuses on the strength and quality of the arguments. Leads to attitude change that is more enduring, resistant to counter-persuasion, and predictive of behavior.
Example: A voter carefully analyzing candidates' policy proposals.
Peripheral Route:
Occurs when people are not motivated or unable to scrutinize the message. Focuses on superficial cues (e.g., source attractiveness, credibility heuristics). Leads to attitude change that is more temporary, susceptible to counter-persuasion, and less predictive of behavior.
Example: A voter choosing a candidate based on their appearance or a catchy slogan.
Factors determining the route: Motivation (personal relevance, need for cognition) and Ability (cognitive capacity, distraction, prior knowledge).
ELM Routes Comparison
| Feature | Central Route | Peripheral Route |
|---|---|---|
| Processing Style | High elaboration, careful, thoughtful | Low elaboration, superficial, heuristic-based |
| Focus | Quality of arguments, evidence, logic | Source attractiveness, credibility, # of arguments |
| Motivation & Ability | High | Low |
| Attitude Change | Enduring, resistant to counter-arguments | Temporary, susceptible to counter-arguments |
| Behavior Prediction | Stronger link | Weaker link |
Role in Public Service and Behavioral Change
Understanding social influence and persuasion is vital for designing effective public policies and interventions aimed at positive behavioral change.
Nudge Theory
Popularized by Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein in their book "Nudge" (2008). A nudge is any aspect of the choice architecture that alters people's behavior predictably without forbidding options or changing economic incentives. Nudges are not mandates.
Examples in India:
- Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (SBA): Used social norming, CLTS, celebrity endorsements, visual cues to promote toilet usage and cleanliness. (PIB, Ministry of Jal Shakti) The Economic Survey 2018-19 highlighted the use of behavioural economics in SBA.
- 'Give It Up' Campaign for LPG Subsidy: Encouraged well-off citizens to voluntarily surrender their LPG subsidy. Relied on social appeal and sense of national duty. (PIB, Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas)
- Beti Bachao Beti Padhao: Uses positive messaging and community engagement to change mindsets about the girl child. (Ministry of Women and Child Development)
NITI Aayog's Behavioural Insights Unit (BIU) applies behavioural science to policymaking in India. (NITI Aayog website)
Behavioural Economics
Combines psychology and economics to understand how people actually make decisions, often irrationally, due to cognitive biases (e.g., anchoring, confirmation bias, loss aversion).
Key Concepts:
- Prospect Theory (Kahneman & Tversky)
- Bounded Rationality (Herbert Simon)
Policy Applications:
- Designing default options (e.g., organ donation opt-out systems).
- Simplifying choices and information presentation.
- Using social norms and feedback.
- Framing effects (how choices are presented).
The Economic Survey 2018-19, Chapter 2: "Policy for Homo Sapiens, Not Homo Economicus: Leveraging the Behavioural Economics of ‘Nudge’" discussed its application extensively.
Public Health Campaigns
Utilize persuasion elements (credible sources like doctors, emotional appeals like fear of disease or hope for health, clear messaging) to promote vaccinations, hygiene.
Examples:
- Pulse Polio Immunization: Extensive use of celebrity endorsements (Amitabh Bachchan), community mobilization, clear messaging. (MoHFW)
- Mission Indradhanush/Intensified Mission Indradhanush (IMI): Focuses on reaching unvaccinated children, using targeted communication and community engagement. (MoHFW, PIB)
- COVID-19 Campaigns: Promoting mask-wearing, hand hygiene, social distancing, vaccine uptake through various channels. "Dawaei Bhi, Kadai Bhi" campaign. (MoHFW, PIB)
- The "Har Ghar Dastak" campaign (late 2021, continued 2022) for COVID-19 vaccination involved door-to-door mobilization. (PIB)
Citizen Engagement
Persuasion and social influence techniques can encourage civic participation, compliance with laws, and build trust between citizens and the government.
Examples:
- MyGov platform: A citizen engagement platform to crowd-source ideas and facilitate participatory governance. (mygov.in)
- Jan Andolan (People's Movement): Framing policies as people's movements (e.g., Swachh Bharat Jan Andolan) to foster collective responsibility and participation.
- Tax compliance campaigns: Using social norming ("Most people pay their taxes on time") and simplification of processes.
Current Examples (India)
COVID-19 appropriate behaviour:
- Persistent campaigns using various media, celebrity endorsements, caller tunes.
- Focus on social responsibility and protection of vulnerable groups. Challenges: "Pandemic fatigue" requiring renewed efforts.
Digital payments adoption:
- Government initiatives like Digital India, promotion of UPI. Highlighting benefits, incentives, social proof. (NPCI, RBI, MeitY)
- Recent (2023-24): Continued push for UPI adoption, especially in rural areas and for specific use-cases like UPI Lite X for offline payments. (NPCI announcements, PIB)
Promoting Sustainable Behaviors
Leveraging influence and persuasion to encourage citizens to adopt eco-friendly practices (e.g., reduce plastic use, conserve energy).
LiFE Mission (Lifestyle for Environment):
An India-led global mass movement that uses persuasive communication to nudge individual and collective action for protecting and preserving the environment. (Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, NITI Aayog)
A prime example of behavioral change for public good on a global scale.
Conclusion/Way Forward/Significance
The principles of social influence and persuasion are powerful tools that, when understood and applied ethically, can significantly contribute to public welfare and effective governance. They are essential for driving behavioral change, implementing public policies, and fostering a more engaged and responsible citizenry.
The way forward involves:
- Ethical Application: Ensuring these techniques are used transparently and for the public good, avoiding manipulation.
- Evidence-Based Policy: Continuously testing and refining interventions based on behavioral insights.
- Contextualization: Tailoring approaches to specific cultural and social contexts.
- Capacity Building: Training public officials in behavioral science principles.
- Combating Misinformation: Using persuasive communication to counter false narratives and promote critical thinking.
Understanding these psychological underpinnings of human behavior allows for more nuanced and effective strategies in public administration, moving beyond mere mandates to fostering genuine cooperation and change.
Prelims-ready Notes
Click to Expand Prelims Notes
Table 1: Types of Social Influence
| Type | Definition | Key Study/Example | Basis of Influence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Conformity | Yielding to group pressure | Asch's Line Experiment | Social Norms, Acceptance |
| Obedience | Complying with commands from an authority figure | Milgram's Shock Study | Authority, Power |
| Compliance | Responding to a direct request | Foot-in-the-door | Persuasion techniques |
| Groupthink | Flawed decision-making due to excessive group cohesion | Bay of Pigs Invasion | Desire for unanimity |
Table 2: Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
| Feature | Central Route | Peripheral Route |
|---|---|---|
| Processing Style | High elaboration, careful, thoughtful | Low elaboration, superficial, heuristic-based |
| Focus | Quality of arguments, evidence, logic | Source attractiveness, credibility, # of arguments |
| Motivation & Ability | High | Low |
| Attitude Change | Enduring, resistant to counter-arguments | Temporary, susceptible to counter-arguments |
| Behavior Prediction | Stronger link | Weaker link |
Table 3: Persuasion in Public Service
| Concept | Application Example in India | Key Principle Leveraged |
|---|---|---|
| Nudge Theory | Swachh Bharat (toilet usage), 'Give It Up' LPG | Choice architecture, social norms, ease of action |
| Behavioural Econ. | Policy design (Economic Survey '18-19), Beti Bachao Beti Padhao | Addressing cognitive biases, framing effects |
| Public Health | COVID-19 vaccination (Har Ghar Dastak), Pulse Polio | Credible sources, emotional appeal, clear messaging |
| Citizen Engagement | MyGov platform, Jan Bhagidari in schemes | Participation, transparency, building trust |
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
Click to Expand Mains Notes
Major debates/discussions:
- Ethics of Nudge: While nudges preserve choice, critics argue they can be manipulative, lack transparency, and may embody paternalism ("libertarian paternalism").
- Pro: Helps achieve socially desirable outcomes with minimal coercion (e.g., increasing savings, promoting health).
- Con: Potential for misuse, lack of public debate on nudges, may not address root causes of problems.
- Limitations of ELM: Oversimplifies the persuasion process; difficult to clearly distinguish between central and peripheral cues in real-world scenarios. The interaction between motivation and ability is complex.
- Cultural variations: Social influence and persuasion tactics may vary in effectiveness across different cultures (individualistic vs. collectivistic). Western models may not be universally applicable.
Historical/long-term trends, continuity & changes:
- From Propaganda to Sophisticated Campaigns: Early 20th-century propaganda (e.g., wartime) was often crude. Modern public information campaigns are more sophisticated, drawing on psychological research (e.g., social marketing).
- Role of Media: Shift from print/radio to television, and now to digital/social media as dominant channels for influence and persuasion. This brings new opportunities (targeted messaging) and challenges (echo chambers, misinformation).
- Citizen Empowerment vs. State Control: The tools of influence can be used for both empowering citizens (e.g., Right to Information campaigns) and for extending state control or promoting specific ideologies.
- Continuity: The fundamental psychological principles (need for belonging, deference to authority, cognitive shortcuts) remain constant, though their expression and manipulation evolve.
Contemporary relevance/significance/impact:
- Tackling Misinformation/Disinformation ("Infodemics"): Understanding persuasion is key to designing strategies to counter fake news and promote media literacy, especially critical during health crises (COVID-19) or elections. (WHO on "infodemic management")
- Promoting Sustainable Behaviors: Persuading citizens to adopt eco-friendly practices (e.g., reduce plastic use, conserve energy, LiFE Mission - Lifestyle for Environment). (Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, NITI Aayog)
- Public Health Emergencies: Rapidly influencing behavior (e.g., mask-wearing, vaccination) is crucial. The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated the vital role of effective public health communication.
- Governance and Policy Implementation: Success of government schemes often depends on citizen buy-in and behavioral change (e.g., Digital India, financial inclusion).
- Social Cohesion: Persuasive communication can be used to foster inter-group harmony and counter divisive narratives.
Real-world/data-backed recent examples (India/world):
- India:
- Swachh Bharat Mission-Grameen Phase II (SBM-G Ph-II): Focuses on sustaining ODF status and managing solid/liquid waste. Uses IEC and community mobilization. (PIB, Ministry of Jal Shakti, SBM Dashboard data shows over 5.8 lakh villages ODF Plus as of early 2024).
- U-WIN Platform (2023 launch): Digital platform for tracking universal immunization, aims to improve vaccine uptake through better record-keeping and timely reminders. (MoHFW, PIB)
- Viksit Bharat Sankalp Yatra (late 2023 - early 2024): A massive outreach initiative to ensure saturation of flagship government schemes, using direct engagement, information dissemination, and on-the-spot enrollment. (PIB)
- World:
- UK's Behavioural Insights Team (BIT - "Nudge Unit"): Successfully applied nudges in areas like tax collection, organ donation.
- Global COVID-19 Vaccination Drives: Varied success rates correlated with persuasive communication strategies and trust in authorities. (WHO reports)
Integration of value-added points:
- Schemes: Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, 'Give It Up' LPG, Mission Indradhanush, PM Ujjwala Yojana, Digital India, Viksit Bharat Sankalp Yatra.
- Reports/Policy Documents: Economic Survey (especially 2018-19 on Behavioural Economics), NITI Aayog reports on Behavioural Insights, WHO guidelines on risk communication.
- International Bodies: World Bank (Global Insights Initiative - GINI), OECD (Behavioural Insights for Public Policy).
Current Affairs and Recent Developments (Last 1 Year)
Click to Expand Recent Developments
- Viksit Bharat Sankalp Yatra (Nov 2023 - Jan 2024): A prime example of a large-scale government outreach program using direct communication and persuasion to ensure scheme saturation and gather feedback. (Source: PIB)
- Focus on Mental Health Awareness (ongoing): Campaigns like "MANAS" (Mental Health and Normalcy Augmentation System) by the Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser use digital platforms for promoting mental wellbeing, involving persuasive messaging to reduce stigma. (Source: manasmitra.gov.in, PIB)
- NITI Aayog's continued work with State BIUs: Promoting the establishment and strengthening of Behavioural Insights Units in various states to tailor interventions. (Source: NITI Aayog updates)
- Combating Deepfakes and Misinformation (2023-24): Growing concern over AI-generated misinformation. Government efforts and public discussions on using persuasive literacy campaigns and technological solutions to build resilience. (Source: MeitY advisories, news reports)
- Promotion of Millets (International Year of Millets 2023): Government campaigns used persuasive messaging (health benefits, sustainability, farmer welfare) through various channels, including celebrity endorsements and public events, to boost production and consumption of millets ('Shree Anna'). (Source: Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, PIB)
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Prelims MCQs:
1. Consider the following statements regarding 'Nudge Theory':
- It involves designing choices in such a way that people are subtly guided towards beneficial decisions without restricting their freedom of choice.
- It is primarily based on the assumption that individuals always make rational economic decisions.
- The 'Give It Up' campaign for LPG subsidy in India is an example of its application.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b)
Hint/Explanation: Nudge theory (Richard Thaler) relies on insights from behavioral economics, which acknowledges that people often make irrational decisions (cognitive biases). Statement 2 is incorrect. Statement 1 correctly defines nudge. Statement 3 is a well-known example.
2. (UPSC CSE 2019 - Modified for relevance) The concept of 'choice architecture' is most closely associated with:
- (a) Classical economic theory
- (b) Behavioural economics
- (c) Game theory
- (d) Public choice theory
Answer: (b)
Hint/Explanation: Choice architecture, a key element of Nudge theory, refers to how choices are presented to consumers and its impact on decision-making. This is a core concept in Behavioural Economics.
3. Which of the following psychological phenomena best explains why individuals might publicly agree with a group's incorrect judgment in an unambiguous situation, even if they privately believe otherwise?
- (a) Cognitive Dissonance
- (b) Fundamental Attribution Error
- (c) Normative Social Influence
- (d) Bystander Effect
Answer: (c)
Hint/Explanation: Normative social influence, demonstrated in Asch's conformity experiments, is influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval from the group.
Mains Questions:
1. "Social influence and persuasion are powerful tools that can be harnessed for public good. However, their application in governance also raises ethical concerns." Discuss with suitable examples.
Direction:
- Introduction: Define social influence and persuasion, highlight their dual potential.
- Harnessing for Public Good: Examples like Swachh Bharat, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, COVID-19 awareness, 'Give It Up' campaign. Explain how principles like social proof, authority, emotional appeal were used.
- Ethical Concerns: Discuss manipulation vs. persuasion, paternalism (Nudge theory), transparency, potential for misuse by state or vested interests, privacy concerns in micro-targeting.
- Balancing Act: Suggest safeguards – transparency, public debate, independent oversight, focus on citizen empowerment.
- Conclusion: Reiterate the need for ethical application for sustainable public good.
2. What do you understand by 'Groupthink'? How can it adversely affect decision-making in public administration? Suggest measures to prevent it.
Direction:
- Introduction: Define Groupthink (Irving Janis), mention it's a psychological phenomenon in cohesive groups.
- Adverse Effects in Public Administration: Poor policy formulation, overlooking risks (e.g., in infrastructure projects, security decisions), stifling innovation, lack of critical evaluation of schemes, leading to inefficient resource allocation or even fiascos. Provide hypothetical or real examples if possible (e.g., rushed implementation without feedback).
- Preventive Measures: Leader encourages dissent and critical evaluation; Appointing a 'devil's advocate'; Seeking external expert opinions; Breaking group into sub-groups; Leader initially withholding own opinion; Second-chance meetings.
- Conclusion: Emphasize importance of robust decision-making processes in public service.
3. The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) provides a framework for understanding how persuasion works. How can civil servants utilize this model to design more effective communication strategies for behavioural change in society?
Direction:
- Introduction: Briefly explain ELM (Central and Peripheral routes).
- Utilizing Central Route: For issues requiring deep engagement (e.g., financial planning, health choices), use strong arguments, data, expert endorsements. Target motivated and able audiences.
- Utilizing Peripheral Route: For less critical or low-involvement issues, or when audiences lack motivation/ability, use attractive sources (celebrities for SBM), simple heuristics, emotional appeals, repetition.
- Tailoring to Audience: Assess audience motivation and ability to process information for specific campaigns (e.g., rural vs. urban, educated vs. less educated).
- Examples: Anti-tobacco campaigns: Central (health data, doctor's advice), Peripheral (graphic warnings, celebrity anti-smoking messages). Digital literacy: Central (step-by-step guides), Peripheral (simple slogans).
- Challenges: Identifying dominant route for diverse populations, ethical use of peripheral cues. Conclusion: ELM helps create nuanced, targeted communication for better public policy outcomes.
Original MCQs for Prelims
1. Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the 'Foot-in-the-Door' technique of compliance?
- (a) A salesperson offers a large discount upfront to attract customers.
- (b) A charity first asks for a large donation and then, upon refusal, asks for a smaller one.
- (c) A political canvasser first asks a resident to put up a small campaign sticker in their window, and a week later asks them to put up a large sign on their lawn.
- (d) A company advertises a product at a very low price, only to reveal additional mandatory costs later.
Answer: (c)
Explanation: The Foot-in-the-Door technique involves getting a person to agree to a small request first, making them more likely to agree to a larger, related request later. Option (a) is a discount strategy, (b) is Door-in-the-Face, and (d) is Low-ball technique.
2. Consider the following statements regarding the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of persuasion:
- The central route to persuasion involves careful scrutiny of the message's arguments and leads to more enduring attitude change.
- The peripheral route is more effective when the audience has high motivation and ability to process the information.
- Source attractiveness and credibility are examples of cues primarily processed via the peripheral route.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b)
Explanation: Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is incorrect; the peripheral route is more effective when motivation and ability are low. Statement 3 is correct as source characteristics are typical peripheral cues.
Original Descriptive Questions for Mains
1. "While 'Nudge Theory' offers a promising avenue for cost-effective behavioural change in public policy, its over-reliance without addressing structural inequities can be counterproductive." Critically analyze this statement with Indian examples.
Key Points/Structure for Answering:
- Introduction: Briefly define Nudge Theory and its appeal in policymaking (e.g., Economic Survey mention).
- Promise of Nudge Theory: Explain how it works (choice architecture, leveraging biases). Provide Indian examples of successful or intended nudges (Swachh Bharat, Give it Up LPG, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, FASTag adoption). Highlight cost-effectiveness and preservation of choice.
- Limitations and Counterproductivity (Focus of "Critically Analyze"): Argue that nudges might improve superficial behaviors but fail if underlying issues (poverty, lack of access, discrimination, poor infrastructure) are not addressed. Example: Nudging for toilet use (SBM) is less effective if water supply is absent. Example: Nudging for digital payments is limited if digital literacy and connectivity are poor. Nudges can inadvertently shift responsibility to individuals rather than addressing systemic failures.
- Need for a Balanced Approach: Argue that nudges should complement, not replace, structural reforms and welfare measures. Integrate behavioral insights with traditional policy tools.
- Conclusion: Nudge theory is a valuable tool, but its effectiveness and ethicality depend on its integration within a broader framework of equitable development and structural change.
2. "In an era of information overload and sophisticated disinformation campaigns, the ability of a public servant to persuade ethically and effectively is more critical than ever." Elaborate on the key elements of ethical persuasion and their significance for good governance.
Key Points/Structure for Answering:
- Introduction: Acknowledge the current information environment (overload, fake news) and link it to the heightened need for ethical persuasion by public servants.
- Why Persuasion is Critical for Public Servants: Implementing policies that require public cooperation; Building trust and legitimacy; Mediating conflicts and building consensus; Encouraging citizen participation; Countering misinformation.
- Key Elements of Ethical Persuasion (Link to Persuasion Model but with an ethical lens): Source Credibility (genuine expertise, integrity); Message Content (truthfulness, accuracy, completeness, avoiding manipulation); Receiver Focus (respecting autonomy, empowering with information); Channel Choice (accessible and appropriate channels); Intent (overarching motive must be public good).
- Significance for Good Governance: Fosters trust between citizens and state; Enhances policy effectiveness and voluntary compliance; Promotes transparency and accountability; Strengthens democratic participation; Helps in managing crises effectively.
- Challenges: Maintaining ethical lines in high-pressure situations, dealing with entrenched cynicism. Conclusion: Ethical persuasion is a cornerstone of responsible public service, vital for navigating complexities and achieving sustainable development goals in a democratic society.
Social Influence
Social influence describes how our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are affected by the presence or actions of others, whether real, imagined, or implied.
Conformity: Yielding to Group Pressure
Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in belief or behavior in order to fit in with a group. This change is in response to real (involving the physical presence of others) or imagined (involving the pressure of social norms/expectations) group pressure. (NCERT Class 12 Psychology, Chapter 7: Social Influence and Group Processes)
Key Study: Asch Experiment (Solomon Asch, 1950s)
Types of Conformity
Obedience: Complying with Authority
Obedience is a form of social influence where an individual acts in response to a direct order from another individual, who is usually an authority figure. (NCERT Class 12 Psychology, Chapter 7)
Key Study: Milgram Experiment (Stanley Milgram, 1960s)
Factors Influencing Obedience
Compliance: Responding to Direct Requests
Compliance refers to a change in behavior in response to an explicit request from another person or group. It differs from obedience as the requestor may not hold a position of authority. (NCERT Class 12 Psychology, Chapter 7)
Techniques for Gaining Compliance
Groupthink: Dangers in Decision-making
Coined by Irving Janis (1972), groupthink is "a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action." (NCERT Class 12 Psychology, Chapter 7)
Symptoms of Groupthink
Prevention: Impartial leadership, encouraging critical evaluation (devil's advocate), seeking outside opinions, breaking into subgroups, second-chance meetings.