Climate Change Mitigation & Adaptation
India is highly vulnerable to climate change. The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) provides an overarching framework for addressing climate change through its eight missions. Specific schemes like FAME India promote e-mobility, NAFCC supports adaptation projects, the National Green Hydrogen Mission aims to establish India as a green hydrogen hub, and the PAT scheme enhances industrial energy efficiency. These initiatives reflect India's commitment to its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement.
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
MoEFCC & Multiple MinistriesJune 2008Objective:
To enable the country to adapt to climate change and enhance the ecological sustainability of India’s development path. It outlines a multi-pronged, long-term, and integrated strategy.
Eight National Missions under NAPCC:
Progress & Challenges:
Progress varies across missions. Coordination, funding, and capacity building are key challenges. State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCCs) are also formulated.
FAME India Scheme
Ministry of Heavy IndustriesPhase II: 2019-2024Objective:
To promote electric mobility by providing financial incentives for demand creation, charging infrastructure, and indigenous manufacturing.
Focus (Phase II):
Electrification of public & shared transport (e-buses, e-3W, e-4W commercial) and private 2-wheelers. Support for charging infrastructure.
Significance & Challenges:
Reduces pollution, cuts oil import bill. Challenges: High EV cost, inadequate charging infra, range anxiety, battery manufacturing development.
National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC)
MoEFCC (Secretariat with NABARD)2015-16Objective:
Assist State/UT Governments with cost of adaptation projects to address adverse effects of climate change, especially in agriculture, water, forestry, coastal systems.
Significance:
A dedicated fund for adaptation, crucial for vulnerable states.
National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM)
Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE)Approved Jan 2023Objective:
Make India a global hub for production, utilization, and export of Green Hydrogen and its derivatives. Aims to contribute to India’s net-zero goals.
Targets (by 2030):
- Green Hydrogen production: At least 5 MMT per annum.
- Associated RE capacity addition: About 125 GW.
- Investments: Over ₹8 lakh crore.
- Job Creation: Over 6 lakh jobs.
- Reduction in fossil fuel imports: Over ₹1 lakh crore.
- GHG abatement: Nearly 50 MMT annually.
Key Components:
SIGHT programme (incentives for electrolyser mfg & Green H2 production), pilot projects, Green Hydrogen Hubs, R&D, policy framework.
Significance & Challenges:
Major step for decarbonizing hard-to-abate sectors. Challenges: High cost, electrolyser mfg capacity, infrastructure, demand creation.
Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) Scheme
Ministry of Power (Implemented by BEE)Objective:
Enhance energy efficiency in energy-intensive large industries by setting mandatory specific energy consumption (SEC) reduction targets.
Mechanism:
Designated Consumers (DCs) get SEC targets. Overachievers get Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts), underachievers purchase ESCerts. ESCerts are tradable.
Significance:
Market-based mechanism leading to significant energy savings in industries.
Prelims-ready Notes: Climate Change
- NAPCC (2008): 8 Missions (Solar-MNRE, Energy Efficiency-Power, Water-Jal Shakti, Himalayan Ecosystem-DST, Green India-MoEFCC, Sustainable Agriculture-Agri, Strategic Knowledge-DST, Sustainable Habitat-MoHUA).
- FAME India: Min. Heavy Industries. Phase II (2019-24). EV incentives & charging infra.
- NAFCC: MoEFCC (NABARD). Funds state adaptation projects.
- NGHM (Jan 2023): Min. MNRE. ₹19,744 cr. Target: 5 MMT Green H2, 125 GW RE by 2030. SIGHT programme.
- PAT Scheme: Min. Power (BEE). Industrial energy efficiency. Tradable ESCerts.
Mains-ready Analytical Notes: Climate Change
India's Climate Commitments (NDCs - Updated Aug 2022) & Net Zero
- Reduce emissions intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030 (from 2005 level).
- ~50% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030.
- Additional carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes CO2eq via forest/tree cover by 2030.
- Net Zero emissions target by 2070 (COP26 Glasgow, 2021).
Schemes like NGHM, Solar Mission, GIM, NMEEE directly contribute.
NAPCC - Progress & Challenges: Successes in Solar Mission, PAT scheme. Challenges: Slower progress in GIM, NWM; need for coordination, funding, monitoring. Periodic review needed.
FAME India - Driving E-mobility: Catalyzed initial adoption. Mass adoption needs addressing high cost, charging density, battery tech (PLI for ACC batteries), consumer awareness.
NGHM - A Strategic Bet: Crucial for decarbonizing hard-to-abate sectors. Success depends on cost reduction (RE & electrolysers), domestic mfg, demand, infrastructure. International collaboration important.
Adaptation vs. Mitigation: Both crucial. NAFCC & adaptation components in NMSA, NWM, NMSHE are vital.
Role of Finance and Technology: Mobilizing finance (public, private, domestic, international) and tech transfer are key enablers.
Table: Climate Change Schemes - Focus
| Scheme | Primary Focus | Key Feature(s)/Target |
|---|---|---|
| NAPCC | Comprehensive Climate Action (Mitigation & Adaptation) | 8 National Missions covering solar, energy efficiency, water, forests, agriculture etc. |
| FAME India | Electric Mobility Promotion | Demand incentives for EVs, support for charging infrastructure. |
| NAFCC | Climate Change Adaptation Projects | Financial support to states for adaptation in vulnerable sectors. |
| NGHM | Green Hydrogen Economy | 5 MMT Green H2 production by 2030, electrolyser mfg, Green H2 hubs. SIGHT programme. |
| PAT Scheme | Industrial Energy Efficiency | Mandatory SEC reduction targets for industries, tradable Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts). |
Conclusion for Climate Change: India's approach involves comprehensive national missions and targeted schemes. The NGHM and push for RE & e-mobility signal strong commitment. Effective implementation, financing, innovation, and international cooperation are essential.
Forest, Wildlife & Biodiversity Conservation
Protecting India's rich forests, diverse wildlife, and unique biodiversity is crucial for ecological balance, livelihood security, and climate resilience. MoEFCC implements various projects and legal frameworks like Project Tiger, Project Elephant, CAMPA Act, and CRZ notifications to conserve these natural resources. Conservation of wetlands and coral reefs also receives special attention.
Key Species Conservation Projects
Project Tiger 1973
Objective: Ensure viable tiger population. Core-buffer strategy in Tiger Reserves. Implemented by NTCA. Success: Tiger pop. 3,682 (2022). 54 Tiger Reserves (early 2024).
Project Elephant 1992
Objective: Protect elephants, habitat & corridors, address man-animal conflict, welfare of captive elephants. Focus on Elephant Reserves.
Project Dolphin Announced Aug 2020
Objective: Conservation of riverine (Gangetic Dolphin - National Aquatic Animal) and oceanic dolphins.
Project Lion Announced Aug 2020
Objective: Conservation of Asiatic Lion and its landscape (Gir, potential reintroduction sites).
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) Act & Fund
MoEFCCAct 2016, Rules 2018Objective:
Institutional mechanism for managing funds from diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes. Promotes afforestation and regeneration.
Mechanism:
National CAMPA (Central) & State CAMPAs. Funds (NPV, compensatory afforestation cost) used for afforestation, wildlife management, etc.
Challenges:
Effective utilization by states, quality of afforestation, transparency, ensuring genuine compensation for forest loss.
National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA)
MoEFCCObjective:
Integrated scheme for conservation and management of identified wetlands (including lakes) and Ramsar sites.
Approach:
Supports states in survey, demarcation, catchment treatment, pollution abatement, biodiversity conservation, sustainable livelihoods.
Significance:
Wetlands crucial for water security, biodiversity, climate regulation. (India: 80 Ramsar sites as of Feb 2024).
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notifications
MoEFCC (under EPA 1986)Latest CRZ Notification 2019Objective:
Protect coastal environments, regulate development, ensure livelihood security of coastal communities.
Categorization & Management:
Divides coastal areas into zones (CRZ-I, II, III, IV). Coastal Zone Management Plans (CZMPs) by states/UTs.
Challenges:
Enforcement, balancing conservation & development, impacts of sea-level rise.
Conservation of Wetlands & Coral Reefs
MoEFCCWetlands:
Covered under NPCA. India signatory to Ramsar Convention. Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017. Amrit Dharohar scheme (Budget 2023) for optimal use of wetlands.
Coral Reefs:
Significant areas (Gulf of Mannar, Kutch, A&N, Lakshadweep). Threats: Climate change (bleaching), pollution, destructive fishing. Conservation: Protected Areas, monitoring, Centrally Sponsored Scheme on Conservation and Management of Coral Reefs and Mangroves.
Prelims-ready Notes: Forest & Wildlife
- Project Tiger (1973): CSS. By NTCA. 54 Tiger Reserves. Tiger pop: 3,682 (2022).
- Project Elephant (1992): CSS. Protect elephants, habitat, corridors.
- Project Dolphin (2020): Riverine & oceanic dolphin conservation.
- Project Lion (2020): Asiatic Lion conservation (Gir & beyond).
- CAMPA Act, 2016: Fund for afforestation against forest land diversion. National & State CAMPAs.
- NPCA: Integrated conservation of wetlands & lakes.
- CRZ Notifications: Under EPA 1986. Regulate coastal dev. CZMPs by states. Latest CRZ Notification 2019.
- Wetlands/Coral Reefs: Ramsar sites (80 in India as of Feb 2024). Amrit Dharohar scheme (Budget 2023) for wetlands. CSS for Coral Reefs & Mangroves.
Mains-ready Analytical Notes: Forest & Wildlife
Success of Project Tiger: Global success due to legal backing (WPA, NTCA), funding, scientific monitoring, community involvement.
Challenges in Wildlife Conservation: Habitat Loss & Fragmentation (infra, agri, mining); Human-Wildlife Conflict (crop damage, casualties, retaliatory killings); Poaching & Illegal Trade; Climate Change Impacts.
CAMPA Funds - Effective Utilization: Crucial for genuine afforestation, biodiversity enhancement, not just monoculture. Need monitoring, local community involvement.
Coastal Zone Management - Balancing Act: CRZ balances development & protection. Effective CZMP implementation, addressing violations, climate impacts (sea level rise) critical. 2019 notification aimed for economic boost, faced environmental criticism.
Wetland Conservation - Beyond Ramsar: Many non-Ramsar wetlands vital. Wetlands Rules 2017 provide framework, state action key. Amrit Dharohar positive.
Biodiversity Act, 2002 & ABS: Regulates access to biological resources, ensures fair benefit sharing with local communities.
Role of Local Communities: Essential for conservation (JFM, BMCs, eco-development committees).
Table: Forest & Biodiversity Schemes/Acts - Focus
| Scheme/Act | Primary Focus | Key Feature(s)/Target |
|---|---|---|
| Project Tiger | Tiger Conservation | Core-buffer strategy in Tiger Reserves, NTCA. |
| Project Elephant | Elephant Conservation | Habitat protection, corridor management, man-animal conflict mitigation. |
| CAMPA Act | Compensatory Afforestation | Management of funds for afforestation against forest diversion. |
| NPCA | Wetland & Lake Conservation | Integrated management plans, pollution abatement. |
| CRZ Notifications | Coastal Zone Regulation & Management | Regulation of activities in coastal zones, CZMPs. |
Conclusion for Forest & Wildlife: Conservation is integral to India's ecological security. Flagship projects show results, but challenges persist. Landscape approach, community participation, robust law enforcement, mainstreaming biodiversity into development are crucial.
Pollution Control & Waste Management
Addressing escalating pollution (air, water, soil) and managing various types of waste (solid, liquid, plastic, e-waste) are critical environmental challenges. Key initiatives include NCAP, Swachh Bharat Mission, Namami Gange, Gobardhan, and various Waste Management Rules.
National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)
MoEFCCJan 2019Objective:
Comprehensive mitigation for prevention, control, abatement of air pollution. Strengthen air quality monitoring, public awareness, capacity building.
Target & Coverage:
Initial target: 20-30% reduction of PM2.5/PM10 by 2024 (base 2017), revised for 40% reduction by 2025-26 in 131 non-attainment cities (NACs).
Approach & GRAP:
City-specific Clean Air Action Plans. Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) for emergency response (e.g., Delhi-NCR by CAQM).
Challenges:
Multi-source pollution, inter-state coordination (airshed approach), enforcement, real-time source apportionment data, funding.
Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM)
SBM-Urban 2.0 MoHUA
Focus on Solid Waste Management: Making cities ‘Garbage Free’. Source segregation, 100% door-to-door collection, processing all waste, bioremediation of legacy dumpsites.
SBM-Gramin Phase II (ODF Plus) Min. of Jal Shakti2020-2025
Focus: Sustaining ODF status, moving to ODF Plus (solid & liquid waste management in rural areas - biodegradable waste, plastic waste, greywater, faecal sludge management).
Significance:
Comprehensive approach to sanitation and waste management, crucial for public health and environment.
River Conservation: NRCP & Namami Gange
National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) Min. of Jal Shakti
Started 1995. Pollution abatement in identified polluted river stretches (excluding Ganga & tributaries).
Namami Gange Programme Min. of Jal Shakti2014
Objective: Pollution abatement, conservation, rejuvenation of National River Ganga.
Pillars: Sewerage Treatment Infrastructure (STPs), River-Front Development, River-Surface Cleaning, Bio-Diversity Conservation, Afforestation, Public Awareness, Industrial Effluent Monitoring, Ganga Gram.
Implementation: NMCG (national), SPMGs (state). Hybrid Annuity Model (HAM) & One City One Operator Model for STPs.
Challenges:
Slow STP progress, operational capacity, non-point source pollution, industrial compliance, public participation.
Gobardhan Scheme
Dept of Drinking Water & Sanitation (Min. Jal Shakti) & others2018Objective:
Manage cattle/agricultural/organic waste by converting to biogas, CBG, organic manure. Promotes rural sanitation, income, clean energy.
Focus & Significance:
"Waste to Wealth" in rural areas. Contributes to SBM-G (ODF Plus), circular economy, reduced GHG, organic farming. 500 new ‘waste to wealth’ plants planned (Budget 2023-24).
Waste Management Rules
MoEFCC (under EPA 1986)Various rules for specific waste streams, emphasizing Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), segregation, processing, and disposal.
Challenges:
Effective enforcement, infrastructure for collection/processing, public awareness.
Prelims-ready Notes: Pollution & Waste
- NCAP (2019): MoEFCC. Reduce PM2.5/PM10 by 20-30% by 2024 (revised targets) in 131 NACs. GRAP for emergency.
- SBM: Urban 2.0 (MoHUA) - ODF+, ODF++, Water+, Garbage Free. Gramin Ph II (Jal Shakti) - ODF Plus (Solid & Liquid Waste Mgt).
- Namami Gange (2014): Min. Jal Shakti (NMCG). Ganga rejuvenation (STPs, riverfront dev, biodiversity).
- Gobardhan (2018): Min. Jal Shakti (DDWS). Cattle/agri waste to biogas, CBG, manure. 500 new plants (Budget 2023).
- Waste Mgt Rules: For Plastic, E-waste, C&D, Bio-medical, Solid, Hazardous, Battery. EPR. SUP ban (July 2022).
Mains-ready Analytical Notes: Pollution & Waste
Air Pollution - Public Health Emergency: Major health risk. NCAP needs stronger enforcement, funding, airshed mgt. Cleaner fuels (EVs, CNG, Ujjwala), stubble burning solutions crucial.
SBM - Toilets to Total Sanitation: Phase I (ODF) success. Phase II (ODF Plus) complex, needs behavior change, tech, local institutional mechanisms. Economic viability (Gobardhan, WtE) key.
River Rejuvenation - Long Haul: Namami Gange/NRCP challenged by untreated sewage, industrial effluents, agri runoff. Operational STPs, industrial control, non-point source mgt, public participation, Arth Ganga concept important.
Waste Mgt Rules - Implementation Gap: Comprehensive rules, weak enforcement. EPR needs strengthening. Circular economy (reduce, reuse, recycle) essential. Plastic Waste (Amend) Rules 2022 for EPR on packaging. Emerging waste (e-waste, solar panels) needs proactive planning.
Role of Technology & Innovation: For pollution monitoring (CAQMS), waste processing, river cleaning. Promote R&D.
Table: Pollution Control & Waste Management Schemes - Focus
| Scheme | Primary Focus | Key Feature(s)/Target |
|---|---|---|
| NCAP | Air Pollution Reduction | Reduce PM2.5/PM10 in non-attainment cities, city action plans, GRAP. |
| SBM (U & G) | Sanitation & Waste Management | ODF, ODF+, ODF++, Garbage Free, Solid & Liquid Waste Management. |
| Namami Gange | Ganga River Rejuvenation | Pollution abatement (STPs), riverfront dev, biodiversity conservation. |
| Gobardhan | Rural Organic Waste to Wealth | Biogas, CBG, organic manure from cattle/agri waste. |
| Waste Mgt Rules | Specific Waste Stream Management | EPR, source segregation, processing, disposal (Plastic, E-waste, C&D, Bio-medical etc.). |
Conclusion for Pollution Control & Waste Management: Effective control and management critical for public health & sustainability. Strengthening enforcement, tech solutions, public participation, circular economy approach essential.
Renewable Energy Promotion
India is aggressively pursuing renewable energy (RE) to enhance energy security, reduce carbon emissions, and meet climate commitments. MNRE spearheads initiatives for solar, wind, and other RE sources. The National Solar Mission, policies for wind-solar hybrid, offshore wind, and ISA are key.
National Solar Mission (NSM)
MNRE (NAPCC Mission)2010Objective:
Establish India as a global leader in solar energy. Original target 20GW by 2022, revised to 100GW (60GW utility, 40GW rooftop). (India over 70GW solar by end 2023, ongoing to larger RE targets).
Key Schemes/Components:
- Solar Parks & Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects: Large-scale solar parks.
- Grid-Connected Rooftop Solar Programme: Rooftop installations (residential, institutional, commercial).
- PM-KUSUM: Energy security for farmers, de-dieselise farm sector, income via solar power.
- Comp A: Decentralized grid-connected RE plants (500kW-2MW) by farmers.
- Comp B: Standalone solar pumps (20 lakh).
- Comp C: Solarisation of grid-connected pumps (15 lakh).
- Off-grid solar applications.
Challenges:
Land acquisition, grid integration, DISCOM health, slow rooftop uptake, domestic solar mfg (PLI scheme addressing).
National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy
MNRE2018Objective:
Framework for large grid-connected wind-solar PV hybrid systems for optimal use of transmission & land, reducing RE variability, better grid stability.
Significance:
Helps overcome intermittency, improves CUF.
Offshore Wind Energy Policy
MNRE2015Objective:
Develop offshore wind potential in Indian EEZ (good potential off Gujarat, TN coasts).
Approach & Challenges:
Phased development. NIWE nodal agency. Challenges: Higher cost, complex tech, sub-sea cabling, O&M, lack of domestic supply chain. Trajectory for bidding blocks announced.
International Solar Alliance (ISA)
Nov 2015 (India & France) HQ: GurugramObjective:
Action-oriented platform for increased solar deployment for energy access, security, transition in member countries.
Focus & Significance:
"One Sun One World One Grid" (OSOWOG). Mobilizing investments, promoting solar applications, capacity building. Over 116 signatories (early 2024). Positions India as global climate leader, facilitates South-South cooperation.
Prelims-ready Notes: Renewable Energy
- National Solar Mission (2010): NAPCC mission. Target 100GW solar by 2022 (ongoing). Schemes: Solar Parks, Rooftop Solar, PM-KUSUM.
- Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy (2018): Promote grid-conn. hybrid systems for efficiency & stability.
- Offshore Wind Policy (2015): Develop offshore wind in EEZ. NIWE nodal.
- ISA (2015): India & France. HQ: Gurugram. Promote solar globally. "OSOWOG".
Mains-ready Analytical Notes: Renewable Energy
India's RE Trajectory: Global leader, esp. solar. Ambitious targets (500 GW non-fossil by 2030). Driven by energy security, climate commitments, falling tariffs.
Challenges in RE Sector: Grid Integration & Stability (intermittency, infra, storage); Land Acquisition; DISCOM Financial Health (payments, PPAs); Domestic Manufacturing (PLI schemes); Financing.
PM-KUSUM - Impact on Agriculture: De-dieselise, reliable power, farmer income. Challenges: Upfront cost, maintenance, grid integration.
Rooftop Solar - Untapped Potential: Slower adoption. Needs simplified procedures, financing, awareness. National Portal for Rooftop Solar to streamline.
Emerging RE Technologies: Offshore Wind (potential, cost/tech challenges); Green Hydrogen (NGHM); Energy Storage (ACC Battery Storage prog).
ISA & Global Leadership: Showcases India's leadership. OSOWOG ambitious vision.
Table: Renewable Energy Schemes/Policies - Focus
| Scheme/Policy | Primary Focus | Key Feature(s)/Target |
|---|---|---|
| National Solar Mission | Solar Energy Deployment | Solar Parks, Rooftop Solar, PM-KUSUM. Target 100GW by 2022 (part of larger RE goals). |
| Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy | Grid-connected Wind-Solar Hybrid Systems | Optimal use of transmission & land, reduce intermittency. |
| Offshore Wind Policy | Offshore Wind Energy Development | Develop potential in EEZ, phased approach. |
| ISA | Global Solar Energy Cooperation | Platform for member countries, OSOWOG initiative, mobilize investments, capacity building. |
Conclusion for Renewable Energy: India's RE commitment is core to climate action & energy security. Significant progress in solar/wind. Addressing grid integration, financing, domestic mfg, emerging RE tech (green hydrogen, offshore wind) crucial for targets & sustainable energy future.
Overall Relevance for UPSC
A comprehensive understanding of these environmental, climate change, and green initiatives is critical, given their increasing importance in national and global discourse. The ability to link these schemes with India's international commitments, analyze their effectiveness, and discuss the associated challenges and opportunities is essential for Mains.
Prelims Focus
- Scheme Specifics: Objectives, launch year, nodal ministry, targets (NGHM, Solar Mission, NCAP), key features/components (NAPCC missions, FAME India phases, CAMPA fund, Namami Gange pillars, PM-KUSUM components), implementing agencies (NTCA, BEE, NIWE, NMCG).
- Acts & Policies: EPA 1986, WPA 1972, FCA 1980, CAMPA Act 2016, CRZ Notifications, Waste Mgt Rules, RE Policies.
- International Conventions/Bodies: Ramsar Convention, ISA.
- Key Terms: NDCs, Net Zero, Green Hydrogen, ESCerts, EV, Non-attainment cities, GRAP, ODF+/++, STPs, EEZ, OSOWOG.
Mains Focus (GS-III & Essay)
- India's climate policies, NDCs, NAPCC progress.
- Challenges & strategies for RE, e-mobility, green hydrogen.
- Forest, wildlife, biodiversity conservation issues (Project Tiger, human-wildlife conflict, CAMPA utility).
- Pollution control (NCAP effectiveness, river pollution, waste mgt).
- Role of international cooperation (ISA, climate finance).
- Balancing environment with economic development.
- Climate change impacts & adaptation strategies.
- Topics for Essay on environment, climate change, sustainable development, India's green transition.