Introduction: A Century of Transition
The 18th century in India was a period of profound transition, marked by the rapid disintegration of the centralized Mughal Empire. As the imperial authority weakened, various regional powers emerged, asserting their independence and reshaping the political map of the subcontinent.
These newly formed polities can broadly be categorized into two groups: Successor States, which were erstwhile Mughal provinces whose governors (Subahdars) assumed de facto independence while maintaining a nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor; and New States (Independent Kingdoms), which were established by rebels or adventurers who had successfully challenged Mughal authority and carved out their own territories.
The rise of these diverse kingdoms led to a complex and often turbulent political landscape, characterized by shifting alliances and constant warfare, eventually paving the way for the ascendancy of European colonial powers.
Successor States: Mughal Provinces Becoming Autonomous
These states represent a process of decentralization where provincial governors, often powerful nobles, capitalized on the weakening central authority to establish hereditary rule.
Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha
Constituted the richest province of the Mughal Empire, famed for its agricultural bounty and vibrant trade.
- Murshid Quli Khan (1700-1727): Revenue Reforms (mal-zamini), shifted capital to Murshidabad. Ruled de facto independent.
- Alivardi Khan (1740-1756): Usurped power, faced Maratha raids, maintained control over European companies. Economic prosperity.
- Path to Plassey (1757): Siraj-ud-Daulah's lack of diplomacy led to confrontation with EIC.
Awadh
Located in the fertile Gangetic plains, Awadh became a significant independent state.
- Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk (1722-1739): Founder, reorganized revenue system, suppressed zamindars.
- Safdar Jang (1739-1754): Nephew, Mughal Wazir, allied with Marathas.
- Shuja-ud-Daula (1754-1775): Sided with Abdali (Panipat), key participant in Battle of Buxar (1764).
- Composite Culture: Lucknow became a major cultural hub, fostering Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb.
Hyderabad
The Hyderabad state emerged as a powerful entity in the Deccan.
- Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I (1724-1748): Founder, consolidated power (Battle of Shaker Kheda 1724), ruled autonomously.
- Asaf Jahi Dynasty: Ruled Hyderabad until 1948.
- Relations: Maintained nominal loyalty to Mughals; constantly at war with Marathas over Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
New States: Independent Kingdoms by Rebels & Adventurers
These states arose from sustained resistance against Mughal authority or from the independent actions of ambitious leaders.
The Marathas
Most formidable Indian power, challenging Mughal supremacy.
Their rise marked by the shift of power to the Peshwas, ambitious northward expansion, and the formation of a powerful confederacy.
The Sikh Kingdom
Transformed from a religious sect into a formidable political and military power.
Marked by perseverance against persecution and unification under a singular visionary leader.
Mysore
Transformed into a powerful military state under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan.
Known for military modernization, economic innovations, and fierce resistance against the British.
The Jats (Bharatpur)
An agrarian community around Delhi, Agra, and Mathura, rose in revolt.
Consolidating power through military acumen and strong leadership.
Rohillas & Bangash Pathans
Afghan groups who established semi-independent principalities in North India.
Key players in regional power struggles, often allied with external invaders.
Kerala (Travancore)
Fragmented into numerous small independent kingdoms with intense European interactions.
Noted for strategic consolidation and a rare victory against a European power.
The Marathas: A Forging Empire
Post-Aurangzeb Era: Shahu's Release (1707)
Released by Bahadur Shah I, igniting civil war with Tarabai. Shahu eventually emerged victorious.
Balaji Vishwanath (Peshwa: 1713-1720)
Second founder of Maratha state. Secured Mughal Farman (1719) for Chauth & Sardeshmukhi from Deccan provinces, legitimizing Maratha expansion.
Baji Rao I (Peshwa: 1720-1740)
Greatest Peshwa. Advocated "Maratha Padshahi" in North India. Decisively defeated Nizam (Battle of Palkhed 1728). Campaigns into Malwa, Gujarat, Bundelkhand, reached Delhi (1737).
Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) (Peshwa: 1740-1761)
Maratha Empire reached geographical zenith. Overextension and diplomatic failures led to disastrous Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
Third Battle of Panipat (1761)
Devastating defeat against Ahmad Shah Abdali, massive loss of life and prestige. Temporarily checked expansion, weakened Peshwa's central authority, created power vacuum in North India.
Maratha Confederacy
Evolved into loose confederacy: Holkars (Indore), Scindias (Gwalior), Gaekwads (Baroda), Bhonsles (Nagpur). Internal rivalries were common.
Maratha Administration & Revenue
Chauth (1/4th revenue for protection) & Sardeshmukhi (1/10th as hereditary claim). Military evolved to include European-style infantry.
Post-Panipat Recovery (Madhavrao I, Nana Phadnavis, Mahadji Scindia)
Brilliant statesmen like Madhavrao I initiated revival, reasserted supremacy, brought Mughal emperor back to Delhi. Nana Phadnavis and Mahadji Scindia continued the effort.
The Sikh Kingdom: From Sect to Empire
Banda Bahadur's Revolt (1708-1716)
Transformed Sikh movement into political struggle, established a short-lived Sikh state. Executed by Mughals, but instilled strong resistance.
Period of Persecution & Resilience (1716-1760s)
Intense persecution from Mughals and Abdali. Organized into Dal Khalsa (1748) for guerrilla warfare. Rakhi system offered protection for revenue.
Rise of Misls (Sikh Confederacies)
Dal Khalsa organized into twelve semi-independent territorial units (Misls), each with a sardar. Competed but united in threat.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1792-1839)
Leader of Sukerchakia Misl, united all Misls into a unified Sikh Empire. Captured Lahore (1799), Amritsar (1805), Multan, Kashmir, Peshawar. Empire from Sutlej to Khyber Pass.
Administration & Military Modernization
Efficient, largely secular administration. Modernized army (Fauj-i-Ain) with European officers, one of Asia's strongest armies.
Treaty of Amritsar (1809)
Signed with British, fixed Sutlej as boundary. Maintained friendly, but wary, relations.
Mysore: The Tiger's Domain
Wodeyar Dynasty & Rise of Hyder Ali (1761-1782)
Hyder Ali, a military adventurer, rose to de facto ruler, marginalizing the Wodeyar king. Focused on military modernization with French assistance.
Hyder Ali's Policies
Established arsenal at Dindigul, adopted European-style training. Efficient revenue, promoted trade, expanded territory (Malabar coast access).
Tipu Sultan ("Tiger of Mysore") (1782-1799)
Enlightened, innovative ruler. Further modernized army, pioneered iron-cased rockets. Introduced new calendar, coinage, weights, measures. Promoted sericulture.
Innovations & Foreign Relations
State commercial enterprises, trade missions abroad (France, Persia). Maintained close ties with French to counter British.
Anglo-Mysore Wars
Four major conflicts. Mysore was a formidable opponent, but defeated in Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) leading to Tipu's death and annexation.
The Jat Kingdom: Agrarian Strength
Churaman (Early 18th Century)
Strengthened Jat position, raided Mughal territories, built forts (Thoone).
Badan Singh (c. 1720s-1756)
Consolidated scattered Jat holdings into cohesive state. Built strong forts including Bharatpur (capital), Dig, Kumher.
Suraj Mal (1756-1763)
Considered 'Jat Ulysses' or 'Plato of the Jat tribe'. Under him, Jat kingdom reached zenith (Delhi to Agra). Efficient administrator, strong army, built Deeg Palaces. Maintained neutrality in Panipat (1761). His death led to decline.
Afghan Principalities: Rohilkhand & Farrukhabad
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Rohilla Afghans:
Settled in fertile Ganga-Yamuna Doab (Rohilkhand). Leaders like Ali Muhammad Khan and Najib-ud-Daula. Constantly embroiled in conflicts with Mughals, Awadh, Marathas. Najib-ud-Daula was key ally of Abdali in Panipat (1761). Subjugated by Awadh with British help (Rohilla War 1774-75).
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Bangash Pathans:
Founded by Muhammad Khan Bangash, established control around Farrukhabad in Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Also played a role in regional power struggles.
Kerala: Coastal Kingdoms
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Travancore:
Martanda Varma (1729-1758): Consolidated kingdom by defeating smaller principalities. Decisively defeated Dutch East India Company (VOC) in Battle of Colachel (1741), ending their political ambitions. Organized strong modern army.
Rama Varma (Dharma Raja) (1758-1798): Successor, patron of arts and scholarship (Kathakali). Maintained strategic alliances.
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Calicut (Zamorin):
Once powerful, lost influence due to European interference and rise of local powers.
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Cochin:
Small kingdom, often in rivalry, influenced by European powers (Portuguese, Dutch, British).
Rajput States: Assertion & Innovation
Assertion of Independence
- Following Aurangzeb's death, major Rajput states (Marwar, Amber/Jaipur, Mewar) reasserted autonomy.
- Formed regional alliances and participated in Mughal succession struggles for concessions.
- Internal rivalries and succession disputes were common, exploited by Marathas and British.
Cultural Contributions (Jaipur)
- Sawai Jai Singh II (Amber/Jaipur) (1699-1743): Brilliant statesman, scholar, reformer.
- Astronomy: Built five astronomical observatories (Jantar Mantars) at Delhi, Jaipur, Mathura, Ujjain, Varanasi.
- Town Planning: Designed and founded the meticulously planned city of Jaipur.
- Also introduced social reforms and translated scientific texts.
Relations with Marathas & Mughals
While retaining nominal allegiance to Mughals, they acted independently. The growing Maratha power posed a significant threat; Rajput states were frequently subjected to Maratha incursions for chauth and tribute, which severely weakened them and prevented them from forming a strong united front.
Overview: Emergence of Regional Polities
| Category | State | Founder / Key Figure | Period | Key Features / Significance |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Successor States | Bengal | Murshid Quli Khan | 1700-1757 | Richest province; revenue reforms; Alivardi Khan controlled Europeans; Economic prosperity. |
| Awadh | Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk | 1722-1764 | Revenue reforms; Safdar Jang (Mughal Wazir); Shuja-ud-Daula (Panipat, Buxar); Composite culture. | |
| Hyderabad | Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I | 1724-1748 | Consolidated power in Deccan (Battle of Shaker Kheda); Constantly rivaled Marathas. | |
| New States | Maratha Empire | Shahu, Balaji Vishwanath, Baji Rao I | 1707-1818 | Rise of Peshwas; Northward expansion; Chauth/Sardeshmukhi; Confederacy; Panipat (1761) debacle. |
| Sikh Kingdom | Banda Bahadur, Maharaja Ranjit Singh | 1708-1849 | From persecuted sect to empire; Dal Khalsa, Misls; Ranjit Singh unified Punjab, modernized army, Treaty of Amritsar. | |
| Jat Kingdom | Churaman, Suraj Mal | 1700s-1763 | Agrarian revolt; Forts (Bharatpur, Deeg); Suraj Mal "Jat Ulysses". | |
| Mysore | Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan | 1761-1799 | Rise from Wodeyars; Military modernization (French help, rockets); Economic development; Key British adversary. | |
| Travancore (Kerala) | Martanda Varma, Rama Varma | 1729-1798 | Consolidated power; Defeated Dutch (Battle of Colachel); Resisted Tipu. | |
| Rajput States | Jaipur | Sawai Jai Singh II | 1699-1743 | Asserted independence; Astronomy (Jantar Mantars); Town planning (Jaipur city); Harassed by Marathas. |
Key Takeaways & Prelims-Ready Notes
Successor States:
- Bengal: Murshid Quli Khan (revenue reforms, capital to Murshidabad); Alivardi Khan (controlled Europeans, faced Marathas). Pre-Plassey economic powerhouse.
- Awadh: Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk (founder); Shuja-ud-Daula (Panipat, Buxar). Known for Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb.
- Hyderabad: Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I (Chin Qilich Khan), established in 1724 (Battle of Shaker Kheda).
New States/Independent Kingdoms:
- Marathas: Shahu's release (1707), rise of Peshwas. Balaji Vishwanath (Mughal Farman 1719 for Chauth/Sardeshmukhi); Baji Rao I (Northward expansion, Battle of Palkhed); Balaji Baji Rao (Maratha zenith, Panipat 1761 debacle). Confederacy: Holkars (Indore), Scindias (Gwalior), Gaekwads (Baroda), Bhonsles (Nagpur). Chauth (1/4th), Sardeshmukhi (1/10th). Post-Panipat recovery under Madhavrao I, Nana Phadnavis, Mahadji Scindia.
- Sikhs: Banda Bahadur (first political leader, martyred 1716). Dal Khalsa (1748), Misls. Maharaja Ranjit Singh (unified Misls, Sikh Empire, Lahore capital, modern army Fauj-i-Ain, Treaty of Amritsar 1809).
- Jats (Bharatpur): Churaman, Badan Singh, Suraj Mal ('Jat Ulysses', built Deeg palaces).
- Rohillas (Rohilkhand): Najib-ud-Daula (allied with Abdali at Panipat).
- Mysore: Hyder Ali (rose from military, French help), Tipu Sultan (rockets, calendar, coinage, resisted British).
- Travancore: Martanda Varma defeated Dutch in Battle of Colachel (1741).
Rajput States:
- Sawai Jai Singh II (Jaipur/Amber): Built Jantar Mantars (observatories), founded Jaipur city.
Analytical Insights: Mains-Ready Notes
- "Dark Age" vs. "Regional Florescence": This period challenges the traditional view. Many states (Bengal, Awadh, Mysore, Marathas, Sikh Empire) showed administrative stability, economic dynamism, cultural vibrancy (e.g., Muzaffar Alam, C.A. Bayly).
- Nature of Autonomy: Successor states maintained a façade of loyalty but acted independently, reflecting the symbolic power of the Mughal name.
- Contribution to Mughal Decline: They certainly fragmented the empire and diverted resources, indicating the central state's inability to maintain control.
- Decentralization of Power: Fundamental shift from centralized empire to a fragmented, multi-polar political system.
- Administrative Adaptations: Many states adopted Mughal practices but with local innovations and greater efficiency.
- Military Modernization: Rulers like Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan, Ranjit Singh modernized armies with European training/technology.
- Economic Resilience: Despite turmoil, many regions maintained prosperity, fostering local trade (Bengal, Awadh, Punjab, Travancore).
- Composite Culture: Regional courts became new patrons, fostering distinct regional styles and composite cultures (e.g., Awadh's Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb).
- Regional Identities: Contributed to shaping distinct regional identities and cultures influencing modern federalism.
- State-building Lessons: Administrative reforms of Murshid Quli Khan, Nizam-ul-Mulk, Ranjit Singh offer lessons in state-craft.
- Legacy of Conflict and Unity: Constant inter-state warfare and failure to unite against British highlight perils of disunity.
- Cultural Heritage: Architectural, artistic, literary contributions form integral part of India's rich heritage (Jantar Mantars, Lucknow Imambaras).
Current Affairs & Legacy
For a topic on historical political entities, direct "current affairs" (new government schemes, technological advances) are generally minimal. However, tangential links related to their legacy can be found:
- Archaeological Discoveries/Restoration: Any new finds or ongoing restoration projects of monuments (e.g., Sikh Gurdwaras, Maratha forts, Tipu's palaces, Deeg palaces, Lucknow heritage structures, Murshidabad complexes) maintained by ASI or state heritage departments.
- Cultural Festivals/Commemorations: Anniversaries or cultural events celebrating figures like Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Tipu Sultan, Sawai Jai Singh II, or historical battles.
- UNESCO Recognition: Preservation efforts for UNESCO World Heritage Sites like Jaipur's Jantar Mantars or the City of Jaipur itself.
Conclusion: The historical context of these polities remains crucial for understanding India's diverse cultural heritage, administrative evolution, and complex geopolitical landscape.
UPSC Previous Year Questions
Q. Consider the following statements:
- Mir Jafar was the Nawab of Bengal during the Battle of Plassey.
- The Treaty of Allahabad was signed between the British East India Company and Mir Qasim.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Ans. (d)
Hint: Mir Jafar became Nawab after Plassey. The Treaty of Allahabad was signed with Shah Alam II and Shuja-ud-Daulah, not Mir Qasim.
Q. Which one of the following was the capital of the kingdom of Maharaja Ranjit Singh?
(a) Amritsar (b) Patiala (c) Lahore (d) Kapurthala
Ans. (c)
Hint: Direct factual question about the capital of the Sikh Kingdom, a key new state.
Q. Discuss the various challenges that the Mughal Empire faced in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.
Direction: The emergence of these regional polities is a direct consequence of Mughal decline and also posed a challenge to the remnants of Mughal authority. Explain how their rise fragmented the empire and diverted resources, making the central power irrelevant.
Q. The third battle of Panipat was fought in 1761. Why were so many princely states and Mughal Grandees unwilling to support the Marathas?
Direction: This question directly assesses the dynamics of the Maratha Empire and its relations with other emerging regional powers (like Awadh, Rajput states). Explain how Maratha expansionist policies (Chauth, Sardeshmukhi demands, plundering) alienated these states, leading to a lack of a united front against Abdali.
Test Your Understanding!
Q. Which of the following pairs of 18th-century regional powers and their primary spheres of influence is/are correctly matched?
- Gaekwads: Baroda
- Holkars: Gwalior
- Bhonsles: Nagpur
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans. (c)
Explanation: Gaekwads were based in Baroda, and Bhonsles in Nagpur. Holkars were based in Indore, while Scindias were based in Gwalior.
Q. With reference to the Sikh Kingdom under Maharaja Ranjit Singh, consider the following statements:
- He successfully annexed the British territories east of the Sutlej River.
- His army, Fauj-i-Ain, was trained by European officers.
- He adopted a secular administration, employing individuals of various faiths.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans. (b)
Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect. The Treaty of Amritsar (1809) fixed the Sutlej as the boundary, and Ranjit Singh respected it, not annexing British territories east of it. Statements 2 and 3 are correct.
Q. "The emergence of regional polities in the 18th century was a complex phenomenon, reflecting both the breakdown of imperial authority and the resilience of regional dynamics." Elaborate with specific examples of successor states and new kingdoms.
Hints/Structure: Define emergence in context of Mughal decline. Discuss breakdown (systemic flaws, weak successors) and resilience (successor states' stability/prosperity, new states' indigenous strengths). Emphasize interplay and vulnerability to Europeans.
Q. Analyze the administrative and economic features of any two prominent regional polities that emerged in 18th-century India, and discuss their relative strengths and weaknesses in the context of the period.
Hints/Structure: Choose two polities (e.g., Bengal & Marathas or Mysore & Sikh Kingdom). For each, detail administration (revenue, governance) and economy (trade, agriculture). Then, discuss their respective strengths and weaknesses, concluding with how these factored into their rise and eventual fate.