Introduction: The Rise of a New Class
The emergence of modern industries in India during the late 19th and early 20th centuries led to the creation of a new social class – the industrial working class. Initially plagued by exploitative conditions, this class gradually organized itself, forming trade unions to fight for its economic rights and, significantly, also played a role in India's struggle for independence.
The journey of the working-class movement is marked by distinct phases, ideological influences (nationalism, Gandhism, communism), government responses (repression and reform), and an enduring quest for social justice and better living standards. This movement has been a crucial component of India's socio-economic and political transformation.
Core Content: Evolution of the Movement
Rise of Modern Industries & Working Class
The second half of the 19th century saw the establishment of modern factory-based industries in India, leading to the growth of an industrial workforce in urban centers.
Conditions of Labour
- Long working hours: Typically 12-16 hours a day.
- Low wages: Barely subsistence level, often insufficient for basic needs.
- Poor and unsafe working conditions: Overcrowded, dimly lit, lacked basic amenities, frequent accidents.
- Child labour: Widespread, paid even less, highly vulnerable.
- Lack of social security: No provisions for sickness, old age, unemployment, or accident compensation.
- Housing: Abysmal, overcrowded slums (chawls, ahatas) with poor sanitation.
Key Industries
- Cotton Textiles: Bombay, Ahmedabad, Sholapur, Nagpur.
- Jute: Predominantly around Calcutta (British-owned).
- Railways: Major employer, extensive network and workshops.
- Mines (Coal): Bengal, Bihar, Orissa; harsh and dangerous conditions.
- Plantations (Tea, Coffee, Indigo): Assam, Bengal, South India; employed indentured labour under oppressive conditions.
Early Efforts at Labour Welfare (Pre-1918)
Initial responses were philanthropic, influenced by humanitarian concerns and British industrial competition.
- Social Reformers: Sorabjee Shapoorji Bengalee raised concerns.
- External Pressure: Lancashire & Manchester textile interests prompted legislation to counter cheap Indian labour.
- Factory Act, 1881: Prohibited child labour below 7; limited hours for 7-12 yrs to 9/day. Did not apply to adults.
- Factory Act, 1891: Min. age for child employment raised to 9; child hours reduced to 7/day; women's hours restricted to 11/day; weekly holidays for all. Inadequate and poorly enforced.
- Sasipada Banerjea: Founded Working Men's Club (1870), started 'Bharat Sramjeebi'.
- Narayan Meghaji Lokhande: 'Father of Indian Labour Movement'. Organized Bombay mill workers (1884).
- Bombay Millhands' Association (1890): Formed by Lokhande; early labour organization (not a modern trade union), petitioned for rights. Started 'Dinabandhu' journal.
- Early Unions (not systematic): Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants (1897), Printers’ Union (1905), Bombay Postal Union (1907).
Note: Early Strikes
Strikes in this early period were mostly sporadic and unorganized, spontaneous reactions to specific grievances. They lacked formal structure, leadership, or long-term strategy (e.g., GIP Railway strike 1899).
Rise of Modern Trade Unionism (Post-WWI)
- Economic hardship after WWI: Post-war inflation, stagnant wages, immense worker hardship.
- Influence of Russian Revolution (1917): Inspired by Bolshevik success, popularized Marxist/socialist ideas.
- Rise of nationalist/socialist ideas: National movement integrated workers' demands.
- Gandhian Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22): Mass political awakening, worker participation, Gandhi's arbitration model (Ahmedabad).
- Establishment of ILO (1919): International platform, pressure on British India for labour issues.
- Madras Labour Union (1918): Founded by B.P. Wadia, Thiru. Vi. Ka.; considered India's first systematic trade union.
- Textile Labour Association (TLA), Ahmedabad (1918/1920): Founded by Mahatma Gandhi after Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918); based on Trusteeship, arbitration, peaceful resolution. Key figures: Anasuya Sarabhai, Shankarlal Banker.
- Numerous other unions emerged in railways, shipping, mining, etc.
- Formation: 31 October 1920 in Bombay.
- Context: Need for a central organization to coordinate unions, represent Indian labour at ILO.
- Key Figures: First President: Lala Lajpat Rai; First General Secretary: Diwan Chaman Lall. Others: N.M. Joshi, Joseph Baptista, V.V. Giri.
- Ideological Influences: Initially nationalists/moderates. Later, growing influence of Communists (S.A. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed) and radical Nationalists (Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose).
- Aims: Coordinate TUs, promote economic/social/political interests of workers, achieve Swaraj, foster class solidarity.
Table: Early Trade Union Development
| Year | Organization/Event | Key Figure(s) | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1870 | Working Men's Club | Sasipada Banerjea | Early welfare effort, publication of Bharat Sramjeebi. |
| 1890 | Bombay Millhands' Association | N.M. Lokhande | Pioneer labour organization (not a true trade union). |
| 1918 | Madras Labour Union | B.P. Wadia, Thiru. Vi. Ka. | Considered India's first systematic trade union. |
| 1918 | Ahmedabad Mill Strike | Mahatma Gandhi, Anasuya Sarabhai | Successful strike based on Gandhian principles. |
| 1920 | Textile Labour Association (TLA) | Mahatma Gandhi, Anasuya Sarabhai, S. Banker | Founded on Gandhian principles of Trusteeship and arbitration. |
| 1920 | All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) | Lala Lajpat Rai, Diwan Chaman Lall, N.M. Joshi | First all-India central organization of trade unions. |
Phases of Working Class Movement
- Rapid growth in unions and membership.
- Wave of major strikes: Bombay Textile Mills (1924, 1925, 1928), Jute Mills, Railways, Tata Steel.
- Rise of Communist Influence: Gained significant influence (S.A. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed); formed Workers and Peasants Parties (WPPs).
- Trade Disputes Act, 1929: Made strikes in public utilities illegal without notice; forbade coercive/political union activities; provided for non-binding dispute settlement.
- Public Safety Bill (1928): Aimed to deport foreign communists; enacted as ordinance after legislative defeat.
- Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929-1933): Arrest/trial of 31 prominent trade union leaders (Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, Spratt, Bradley); weakened movement temporarily but popularized communist ideas.
- Ideological Differences: Reformist/Gandhian (moderates like N.M. Joshi, V.V. Giri) vs. Militant/Communist (radicals like S.A. Dange).
- Indian Trade Union Federation (ITUF), 1929: Formed by moderates seceding from AITUC at Nagpur session (Nehru presided, radicals dominated).
- Red Trade Union Congress (RTUC), 1931: Further split by extreme leftists (B.T. Ranadive) from AITUC.
- Unity Efforts: Weakened movement led to mergers. 1935: RTUC merged with AITUC. 1938: ITUF (now NTUF) merged with AITUC, briefly making AITUC sole central body.
Table: Splits and Unity in AITUC
| Year | Event | Key Faction/Leaders | Reason/Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1929 | First Split in AITUC (Nagpur) | Moderates (N.M. Joshi, V.V. Giri) | Formed Indian Trade Union Federation (ITUF) due to militant communist dominance. |
| 1931 | Second Split in AITUC | Extreme Communists (B.T. Ranadive) | Formed Red Trade Union Congress (RTUC). |
| 1935 | Merger | RTUC merges with AITUC | Step towards unity, AITUC under communist leadership. |
| 1938 | Merger | ITUF (National Trade Union Federation - NTUF, formed by ITUF and another group in 1933) merges with AITUC | Re-unification of AITUC. |
- Increased civil liberties, marked increase in union activity and strikes.
- Congress governments adopted generally pro-labour stance: labour inquiry committees, mediation, some pro-labour legislation (e.g., Bombay Industrial Disputes Act, 1938).
- However, sometimes used repressive measures (Section 144) against disruptive strikes.
- Initial AITUC anti-war stance changed.
- CPI's "People's War" (post-1941): After Germany attacked USSR, CPI (controlling AITUC) supported Allied war effort, advocated industrial peace.
- Other Groups: Nationalists/socialists continued anti-imperialist strikes (e.g., Quit India Movement).
- Indian Federation of Labour (IFL), 1941: Formed by M.N. Roy, supported war, received government patronage.
- Intense working-class activity due to post-war economic difficulties, impending independence.
- Major strikes: Post and Telegraph (1946), South Indian Railway (1946), solidarity with RIN Mutiny (1946).
- Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC), May 1947: Formed by Congress-affiliated nationalists (Sardar Patel - First President); aimed to counter communist influence, advocated arbitration.
Role in the National Movement
Key Participations
- Swadeshi Movement (1905-08): Significant worker participation in strikes (Bengal jute, railways). Tilak's arrest (1908) led to massive Bombay textile strike (Lenin hailed).
- Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22): Widespread participation (396 strikes in 1921); linked economic grievances with Swaraj.
- Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34): Initial significant participation (GIP Railway, Sholapur parallel govt.); later declined due to repression/splits.
- Quit India Movement (1942): Spontaneous, widespread strikes (Bombay, Ahmedabad, Jamshedpur) despite CPI's "People's War" stance. Attacked British authority.
Impact & Integration
- Integration of Demands: Economic demands (wages, conditions) raised alongside political demands for liberation.
- Broadening the Base: Worker participation expanded nationalist movement's social base, making it mass-oriented.
- Influence of Ideologies: Nationalist leaders mobilized workers; socialist/communist ideologies radicalized sections, linking struggle with anti-imperialism.
Labour Legislation in British India
Legislation was limited, slow, and often inadequately enforced, driven by mixed pressures.
- Factory Act, 1881 & 1891: (See Subtopic 10.3.2)
- Factory Act, 1911: Limited adult male textile workers' hours to 12/day.
- Workmen's Compensation Act, 1923: Mandated employer compensation for injury/death during employment. (Significant step)
- Trade Unions Act, 1926: Gave legal status to registered trade unions, conferred rights/immunities for legitimate activities. (Landmark Act)
- Trade Disputes Act, 1929: (See Subtopic 10.3.4 – restrictive in nature)
- Payment of Wages Act, 1936: Ensured regular wage payment, prevented unauthorized deductions.
- Factory Act, 1934: (Replaced earlier acts) Revised provisions for health, safety, welfare; restricted working hours.
- Bombay Industrial Disputes Act, 1938: Passed by Congress ministry; emphasized conciliation/arbitration.
- Factory Act, 1946: Further reduced daily/weekly working hours.
Inadequacies of British Labour Legislation
Legislation had limited scope, weak enforcement, low penalties for non-compliance, and often protected employers' interests more.
Contemporary Relevance: India's Labour Codes (Post-Independence)
Post-independence, India enacted numerous labour laws. Recently, the Government of India has consolidated 29 central labour laws into four Labour Codes (2019-2020):
- Code on Wages, 2019
- Industrial Relations Code, 2020
- Code on Social Security, 2020
- Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020
Prelims-ready Notes
Key Facts & Figures
- First Factory Act: 1881 (focused on child labour).
- N.M. Lokhande: Formed Bombay Millhands' Association (1890).
- Sasipada Banerjea: Working Men's Club (1870), Bharat Sramjeebi.
- First Systematic Trade Union: Madras Labour Union (1918) by B.P. Wadia.
- Textile Labour Association (Ahmedabad, 1920): Founded by M.K. Gandhi.
- AITUC Formation: 31 October 1920; First President: Lala Lajpat Rai; First Gen. Sec: Diwan Chaman Lall.
- Key AITUC Presidents: Lala Lajpat Rai, C.R. Das, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose.
- Trade Disputes Act: 1929 (restricted strikes).
- Meerut Conspiracy Case: 1929-33 (trial of communist & trade union leaders).
- AITUC Splits: 1929 (ITUF by N.M. Joshi), 1931 (RTUC by communists).
- Workmen's Compensation Act: 1923.
- Trade Unions Act: 1926 (gave legal status to unions).
- INTUC Formation: May 1947 (Congress-affiliated); President: Sardar Patel.
- Russian Revolution (1917): Major influence.
- ILO Establishment (1919): International platform.
Key Legislation Summary Table
| Act | Year | Key Provisions/Significance |
|---|---|---|
| First Factory Act | 1881 | Regulated child labour (min. age 7, max. 9 hrs/day for 7-12 yrs). |
| Factory Act | 1891 | Min. age 9 (child), max. 7 hrs/day (child), max. 11 hrs/day (women), weekly holiday. |
| Workmen's Compensation Act | 1923 | Compensation for injury/death at work. |
| Trade Unions Act | 1926 | Legal status to trade unions, protection for legitimate activities. |
| Trade Disputes Act | 1929 | Restrictions on strikes in public utilities, conciliation machinery. |
| Payment of Wages Act | 1936 | Ensured regular wage payment, prevented unauthorized deductions. |
| Four Labour Codes (Recent) | 2019-2020 | Consolidation of 29 central labour laws into 4 codes (Wages, IR, Social Security, OSH). |
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
Major Debates & Ideologies
- Nature of Early Movement: Philanthropic vs. worker-led, external (Lancashire lobby) vs. internal assertion.
- Ideological Clashes:
- Gandhian (Reformist): Trusteeship, class harmony, arbitration, peaceful negotiation. Pro-sustainable, anti-radical.
- Communist (Militant): Class struggle, direct action, revolutionary change. Pro-systemic change, anti-collaboration.
- Relationship with National Movement: Synergy (mass base, leadership) vs. Tensions (prioritizing political goals, moderating militancy).
Trends & Contemporary Relevance
- Continuity: Struggle for wages, conditions, social security persists. Capital vs. labour tension.
- Changes: From unorganized to organized TUs, economic demands to political aims, changing govt. response, ideological diversity.
- Legacy: Foundation for India's labour laws, trade unions' role.
- Contemporary Echoes: Debates on Four Labour Codes (worker protection vs. ease of business), gig economy challenges, ILO conventions.
- Globalization Impact: Competition, flexibility, challenges to union power.
Current Affairs & Recent Developments
- Implementation of Labour Codes: Ongoing process, with Central Government finalizing rules and states framing their own. Major point of discussion and contention between government, industry, and trade unions.
- Gig and Platform Workers: The Code on Social Security, 2020, for the first time, defines and includes provisions for gig and platform workers, aiming to provide them with social security benefits. Schemes and frameworks are under development (e.g., NITI Aayog's Gig and Platform Economy report).
- Focus on Occupational Safety and Health (OSH): The OSH Code aims to consolidate laws. The COVID-19 pandemic further highlighted the critical importance of robust OSH frameworks for all workers.
- Debates on "Fixed Term Employment": Provisions in the Industrial Relations Code regarding FTE continue to be debated for their impact on job security versus employer flexibility.
- International Labour Conference (ILC): India's ongoing participation in ILC discussions on global labour standards, post-pandemic recovery, and social justice. Issues like ratification of core ILO conventions (e.g., C87, C98 on Freedom of Association and Collective Bargaining) remain relevant.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Prelims MCQs
The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was formed in 1920. Who presided over its first session?
(a) Purushottamdas Thakurdas
(b) Lala Lajpat Rai
(c) N.M. Joshi
(d) B. Shiva Rao
Answer: (b) Lala Lajpat Rai
The Trade Disputes Act of 1929 provided for:
(a) The participation of workers in the management of industries.
(b) Arbitrary powers to the management to quell industrial disputes.
(c) An intervention by the British Court in the event of a trade dispute.
(d) A system of tribunals and a ban on strikes in public utility services unless prior notice was given.
Answer: (d)
Who among the following was associated with the Madras Labour Union (1918)?
(a) N.M. Lokhande
(b) B.P. Wadia
(c) V.V. Giri
(d) S.A. Dange
Answer: (b) B.P. Wadia
Mains Questions
"The growth of the working-class movement in India was intrinsically linked to the development of the nationalist movement." Elucidate.
Brief Direction:
- Introduction: Parallel growth of both movements.
- Body: Nationalist awakening and leaders mobilizing workers; impact of campaigns (Swadeshi, NCM, CDM, QIM); AITUC's Swaraj aim; influence of ideologies (socialism, communism); workers' economic struggles turning political.
- Conclusion: Two movements significantly influenced and reinforced each other, broadening freedom struggle's base.
Trace the evolution of trade unionism in India from its nascent stage till the eve of independence. Highlight the major ideological influences and government responses.
Brief Direction:
- Introduction: Early labour conditions and philanthropic efforts.
- Body - Phases: Early (pre-WWI, Lokhande), Post-WWI Rise (MLU, TLA, AITUC, communist rise), Repression & Splits (TDA, Meerut, AITUC splits), Congress Ministries & WWII (CPI stance, IFL), Post-War Upsurge (militancy, INTUC).
- Ideological Influences: Gandhian, Nationalist, Socialist/Communist.
- Government Response: Apathy, limited legislation, repression, conciliation.
- Conclusion: By 1947, a significant force, though fragmented.
Discuss the factors responsible for the rise of the modern trade union movement in India after World War I. What were its initial objectives?
Brief Direction:
- Introduction: Post-WWI as a turning point.
- Body - Factors: Economic Hardships, Russian Revolution, Nationalist/Socialist Ideas, Gandhian NCM, ILO Establishment.
- Initial Objectives (primarily AITUC): Coordinate unions, promote economic/social interests, achieve Swaraj, represent internationally, foster class solidarity.
- Conclusion: These factors and objectives shaped trajectory.
Original MCQs for Prelims
Consider the following statements regarding early labour organization in India:
- The Bombay Millhands' Association, formed by N.M. Lokhande, was India's first registered trade union with regular membership and funds.
- Sasipada Banerjea started the newspaper Bharat Sramjeebi to voice the concerns of the working class.
- The primary impetus for the initial Factory Acts (1881, 1891) came solely from the philanthropic concerns of Indian social reformers.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b) 2 only
Which of the following factors was LEAST directly responsible for the surge in trade union activity in India immediately after World War I?
(a) The establishment of the International Labour Organisation (ILO).
(b) The success of the Russian Revolution.
(c) The enactment of the Trade Unions Act, 1926.
(d) Severe economic distress caused by post-war inflation.
Answer: (c) The enactment of the Trade Unions Act, 1926.
Original Descriptive Questions for Mains
"The Indian working-class movement was a child of modern industrialism, but its growth was significantly shaped by the prevailing political currents of colonial India." Critically analyze this statement, highlighting the interplay between economic grievances and political aspirations.
Key Points/Structure for Answering:
- Introduction: Acknowledge dual parentage.
- Child of Modern Industrialism: Harsh conditions, key industries.
- Shaped by Political Currents: Nationalist movement (platforms, leadership, Swaraj aim), ideologies (Gandhism, Socialism/Communism), Government repression.
- Interplay of Economic Grievances & Political Aspirations: Politicization of demands, political struggles highlighting economic issues.
- Critical Analysis: Synergy vs. tensions, independent consciousness vs. external leadership.
- Conclusion: Deeply intertwined with anti-colonial struggle.
The trajectory of trade unionism in India during the 1920s and 1930s was marked by both unprecedented growth and debilitating fragmentation. Discuss the factors contributing to these contradictory trends and their overall impact on the working-class movement.
Key Points/Structure for Answering:
- Introduction: State paradox of growth and fragmentation.
- Factors for Unprecedented Growth: Post-WWI hardship, Russian Revolution, nationalist upsurge, AITUC formation, communist rise.
- Factors for Debilitating Fragmentation: Ideological clashes (Reformists vs. Radicals), Splits (ITUF, RTUC), Government repression, personality clashes.
- Overall Impact: Negative (weakened bargaining, suppression) and Positive/Neutral (clarified philosophies, grassroots activism, eventual unity).
- Conclusion: Critical formative period, potential hampered but not extinguished.