Introduction & Overview
The 19th century saw Indian women shackled by oppressive social customs like Sati, child marriage, purdah, and denied education and property rights. The "Women's Question" thus became a central concern for socio-religious reformers.
Over time, and significantly propelled by the national movement, women transitioned from being subjects of reform to active agents of change. Their participation, evolving from elite individual efforts to mass mobilization, not only strengthened the freedom struggle but also laid the groundwork for their empowerment and rights in independent India. This journey, however, was complex, with patriarchal norms often coexisting with women's increasing public presence.
Position of Women in 19th Century India
Deeply Subordinate Status & Social Evils
- Women faced extreme subjugation in a patriarchal society.
- Social Evils:
- Sati: Widow immolation, prevalent in certain regions and upper castes.
- Child Marriage: Girls married very young, detrimental to health, education.
- Purdah System: Seclusion from public, limiting mobility and participation.
- Female Infanticide: Prevalent in some communities due to socio-economic reasons.
- Polygamy: Permitted for men, further degrading women's status.
- Limited/No Education: Education for girls largely discouraged.
- Restricted Property Rights: Generally no independent right to property; discriminatory inheritance laws.
- Widow's Plight: Faced austerity, social ostracism, forbidden to remarry.
Impact of Socio-Religious Reform Movements
Reform movements of the 19th century, influenced by Western liberal ideas and a reinterpretation of traditional texts, actively championed women's causes.
Sati & Widow Remarriage Reforms
- Abolition of Sati:
- Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Vigorous campaign led to Bengal Sati Regulation Act, 1829 (Lord William Bentinck) making Sati illegal.
- Widow Remarriage:
- Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar: Efforts resulted in Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856.
- D.K. Karve: Established widow's home (1899), founded Indian Women's University (1916).
Female Education & Age of Marriage
- Female Education:
- Bethune School (1849): Founded by J.E.D. Bethune in Calcutta.
- Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Phule: Opened schools for girls in Maharashtra (from 1848). Savitribai became India's first female teacher.
- Muslim reformers like Sheikh Abdullah and Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain also promoted girls' education.
- Raising Age of Marriage:
- Native Marriage Act, 1872: Prohibited child marriage (limited scope).
- Age of Consent Act, 1891: Raised age of consent for girls to 12 years.
- Sarda Act, 1929: Fixed minimum age of marriage for girls at 14 and boys at 18.
Early Public & Political Participation
The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the emergence of individual women who broke societal norms to enter public life.
Individual Pioneers
- Pandita Ramabai Saraswati (1858-1922): Sanskrit scholar, social reformer. Founded Arya Mahila Samaj, Sharda Sadan (for widows), and Mukti Mission.
- Anandibai Joshi (1865-1887): First Indian woman to obtain a degree in Western medicine (1886, USA).
- Swarnakumari Devi (1855-1932): Rabindranath Tagore's elder sister. Novelist, poet, editor. Formed Sakhi Samiti (1886).
- Kadambini Ganguly (1861-1923): One of the first two female graduates from British Empire (1882). Practicing physician. Addressed 1890 INC session, symbolizing women's entry into political life.
Early Congress Participation
- A small number of women attended Congress sessions as delegates and observers from 1889 onwards.
- Representation was mostly from educated, urban, upper/middle-class backgrounds, marking the initial, limited entry of women into formal politics.
Swadeshi Movement (1905-08)
This marked a significant step, moving beyond individual pioneering efforts to more collective, though still limited, participation.
- Boycott of Foreign Goods: Women actively boycotted foreign bangles, utensils, and cloth.
- Picketing: Participated in picketing shops selling foreign goods.
- Use of Swadeshi: Adopted and promoted Swadeshi goods, engaged in spinning and weaving.
- Breaking out of Domestic Confines: For many, this was their first experience in public political activity.
- Literary Contributions: Women like Sarala Devi Chaudhurani (Punjab) promoted nationalist ideas. She organized the Bharat Stree Mahamandal in Lahore (1910), considered the first all-India women's organization.
Home Rule Leagues (1916-18)
- Annie Besant: An Irish Theosophist, launched the All India Home Rule League in September 1916. Became the first woman President of the Indian National Congress in 1917 (Calcutta session). Her leadership brought many women into the political fold.
- Sarojini Naidu: A prominent poet and activist, joined the movement and campaigned extensively.
- Women organized and attended meetings, distributed pamphlets, and raised funds.
Gandhian Era – Mass Mobilization
Gandhi's leadership revolutionized women's participation, transforming it into a mass phenomenon.
- Gandhi believed women were inherently suited for non-violent Satyagraha due to their capacity for self-sacrifice, tolerance, and moral strength.
- He urged them to break free from domestic confines and participate, framing it as a 'dharma'.
- His appeal resonated across classes and communities.
- Women picketed shops selling liquor and foreign cloth.
- Participated in processions and demonstrations.
- Actively took up spinning Khadi on the charkha, making it a symbol of national pride.
- Basanti Devi, Urmila Devi, Suniti Devi were prominent participants.
- Witnessed unprecedented large-scale participation from diverse backgrounds.
- Salt Satyagraha: Women manufactured and sold salt illegally. Sarojini Naidu led the raid on Dharasana Salt Works after Gandhi's arrest. Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay persuaded Gandhi to let women participate.
- Boycotted foreign cloth and liquor shops with great determination.
- Participated in processions, Prabhat Pheris, and demonstrations.
- Courted arrest in large numbers (nearly 3,000 women convicted).
- Women from peasant families also joined.
- With most male leaders arrested, women took on significant leadership roles.
- Aruna Asaf Ali: Hoisted Indian flag at Gowalia Tank Maidan, guided underground movement.
- Usha Mehta: Operated clandestine Congress Radio.
- Sucheta Kripalani: Coordinated underground activities.
- Matangini Hazra: 73-year-old peasant widow, shot dead while leading a procession.
- Women participated in processions, strikes, and acts of sabotage.
Prominent Women Leaders
Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949)
- "Nightingale of India" (Bharat Kokila).
- First Indian woman President of INC (1925, Kanpur).
- Key role in Salt Satyagraha (Dharasana raid).
- Participated in Second Round Table Conference.
- First woman Governor of an Indian state (UP).
Kasturba Gandhi (1869-1944)
- Steadfast supporter of Mahatma Gandhi.
- Participated in struggles in South Africa and India.
- Led women's satyagraha, often filling in for Gandhi.
- Active in constructive programs.
Madame Bhikaji Cama (1861-1936)
- Revolutionary nationalist active in Europe.
- Hoisted the first version of the Indian national flag at International Socialist Congress in Stuttgart, Germany (1907).
- Published nationalist literature and supported revolutionaries abroad.
Other Significant Contributors
- Kamala Nehru (1899-1936): Active in NCM and CDM.
- Vijayalakshmi Pandit (1900-1990): First Indian woman to hold cabinet post (pre-independence), first woman President of UN General Assembly (1953).
- Rajkumari Amrit Kaur (1889-1964): First Health Minister of independent India.
- Hansa Mehta (1897-1995): Member of Constituent Assembly, ensured gender equality.
- Durgabai Deshmukh (1909-1981): Participated in Salt Satyagraha, lawyer, social worker.
- Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (1903-1988): Persuaded Gandhi for women in Salt Satyagraha, promoted handicrafts.
- Bi Amma (Abadi Bano Begum, 1850-1924): Mother of Ali Brothers, active in Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements.
Women in Revolutionary Nationalism
While Gandhian movements saw mass participation, some women were drawn to revolutionary activities, particularly in Bengal, Punjab, and UP.
Participation & Key Figures
- Participated in secret societies, acted as couriers, provided shelter, and directly engaged in armed actions.
- Key Figures:
- Pritilata Waddedar (1911-1932): Associated with Surya Sen's Indian Republican Army. Led attack on Pahartali European Club.
- Kalpana Dutta (Joshi) (1913-1995): Part of Surya Sen's group, involved in Chittagong Armoury Raid.
- Bina Das (1911-1986): Fired at Bengal Governor Stanley Jackson (1932).
- Suniti Choudhury (1917-1989) and Santi Ghose (1916-1989): Assassinated District Magistrate of Comilla (1931).
- Durga Bhabhi (Durgawati Devi Vohra): Helped Bhagat Singh escape. Active member of HSRA.
Women in Indian National Army (INA)
Rani Jhansi Regiment (1943)
- Formed by Subhas Chandra Bose in 1943 as part of the INA.
- Led by Captain Lakshmi Swaminathan (Sahgal) (1914-2012).
- Comprised about 1000-1500 women from Indian expatriate families in Southeast Asia.
- Received military training and participated in combat roles.
Growth of Women's Organizations
These organizations played a crucial role in articulating women's issues and mobilizing them.
Key Organizations
- Women's Indian Association (WIA) (1917): Founded at Adyar, Madras. Key founders: Annie Besant, Margaret Cousins, Dorothy Jinarajadasa. Focused on women's education, suffrage, socio-economic upliftment. First to campaign for suffrage.
- National Council of Women in India (NCWI) (1925): Branch of International Council of Women. Key figures: Mehribai Tata. Focused on women's rights, social welfare, representation.
- All India Women's Conference (AIWC) (1927): Founded in Poona. Key leaders: Margaret Cousins, Sarojini Naidu, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay. Initially focused on education, later expanded to social reform, legal rights, political participation. Most prominent.
Issues Taken Up
- Women's Education: Advocated for increased access at all levels.
- Suffrage (Right to Vote): WIA and AIWC crucial. Limited suffrage granted by GoI Act, 1919; widened by GoI Act, 1935. Universal adult franchise with Indian Constitution.
- Social Reform: Campaigned against child marriage, purdah, devadasi system, for widow remarriage.
- Legal Rights: Demanded equal legal status, inheritance rights, reform in personal laws.
- Political Representation: Advocated for increased representation in legislative bodies.
Impact of Women's Participation
- Strengthened Nationalist Movement: Mass participation gave legitimacy, force, and a wider social base.
- Challenged Patriarchal Norms: Entry into public life broke traditional barriers. However, this challenge was sometimes framed within nationalist discourse reinforcing certain gender stereotypes.
- Paved Way for Women's Rights in Independent India: Active role created an undeniable moral and political claim for equality. Many women leaders contributed to drafting a gender-just Constitution (e.g., Articles 14, 15, 16, 39(a), 39(d), 42, 51A(e)).
- Partial Emancipation: While empowering, complete social emancipation was an ongoing struggle.
- Increased Self-Confidence and Awareness: Fostered self-confidence and political consciousness in individual women.
Summary: Key Women's Organizations
| Organization | Year Founded | Key Founders/Leaders | Primary Focus |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bharat Stree Mahamandal | 1910 | Sarala Devi Chaudhurani | Women's education, unity among women of all castes/creeds |
| Women's Indian Association (WIA) | 1917 | Annie Besant, Margaret Cousins, Dorothy Jinarajadasa | Suffrage, education, social reform |
| National Council of Women in India (NCWI) | 1925 | Mehribai Tata (Indian chapter), Lady Aberdeen (Intl.) | Women's rights, social welfare (elite-led) |
| All India Women's Conference (AIWC) | 1927 | Margaret Cousins, Sarojini Naidu, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay | Education, social reform, legal rights, political representation |
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
Nature & Extent of Participation
- Evolution: From elite, individual efforts to mass participation across classes/regions.
- Dual Role: Fought British imperialism and internal patriarchal structures.
- Limitations: Leadership often elite; focus sometimes overlooked deeper class/caste issues; patriarchal frameworks sometimes reinforced.
Major Debates/Discussions
- Gandhi's Role: Empowerment vs. Reinforcement of Stereotypes (brought women out but sometimes used traditional imagery).
- Nationalism and Feminism: Allies or Contradictory? (women's emancipation integral but sometimes subordinated to independence).
Historical Trends & Changes
- Continuity: Persistence of patriarchal mindsets.
- Changes: Gradual normalization of women in public life; shift from "objects" of reform to "subjects" of liberation; expansion of issues.
Contemporary Relevance & Impact
- Constitutional Guarantees: Active role led to gender equality provisions in Constitution.
- Legacy for Contemporary Movements: Historical struggle inspires modern women's movements (e.g., Women's Reservation Bill).
- Leadership: Legacy of freedom fighters inspires current women in public service.
- Value-added Points: Precursor to SDG 5 (Gender Equality); inspiration for government schemes (Beti Bachao Beti Padhao etc.).
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
UPSC CSE Prelims 2011:
Q. With reference to the Indian freedom struggle, Usha Mehta is well-known for:
- (a) Running the secret Congress Radio in the wake of Quit India Movement Ans. (a)
- (b) Participating in the Second Round Table Conference
- (c) Leading a contingent of Indian National Army
- (d) Assisting in the formation of Interim Government under Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
Hint: Usha Mehta was a key figure in disseminating information during the Quit India Movement through the underground Congress Radio.
Variant based on typical questions:
Q. Consider the following statements:
- Annie Besant was the first woman President of the Indian National Congress.
- Sarojini Naidu presided over the INC session at Kanpur in 1925.
- The All India Women's Conference was founded in 1927 to promote women's education.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3 Ans. (d)
Hint: All three statements are factually correct concerning these prominent women and organizations.
Based on common knowledge often tested:
Q. Who among the following hoisted the Indian National Flag at the International Socialist Congress in Stuttgart, Germany, in 1907?
- (a) Annie Besant
- (b) Sarojini Naidu
- (c) Madame Bhikaji Cama Ans. (c)
- (d) Aruna Asaf Ali
Hint: Madame Cama is renowned for this act of early nationalist assertion abroad.
UPSC CSE Mains 2017: General Studies Paper I
Q. "The women's question arose in modern India as a part of the 19th-century social reform movement." What were the major issues and debates concerning women in that period?
Direction: Briefly link the women's question to the broader context of social reform. Enumerate major issues (Sati, child marriage, etc.). Discuss debates (reformers' approaches, extent of change, colonial government's role, conservative opposition). Conclude on significance.
UPSC CSE Mains 2016: General Studies Paper I
Q. Discuss the role of women in the freedom struggle, especially during the Gandhian phase.
Direction: Briefly mention evolution. Focus on Gandhi's appeal (ideology, role he saw for them). Detail participation in NCM, CDM, QIM with examples. Discuss nature/significance, and long-term impact.
Based on common Mains themes:
Q. What was the significance of the participation of women in India’s freedom struggle?
Direction: Acknowledge transformation. Discuss how it broadened the base, legitimized struggle, involved unique methods, challenged patriarchy, produced leaders, ensured constitutional gender-justice, and inspired future generations. Optionally, add critique on limitations.
Practice Prelims MCQs
Q. 1
Consider the following pairs regarding women in the Indian National Movement:
- Rani Gaidinliu : Led women in the Civil Disobedience Movement in Nagaland.
- Matangini Hazra : Hoisted the INC flag during Quit India Movement and was shot dead.
- Bhikaji Cama : Operated a secret radio during the Quit India Movement.
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
- (a) 1 and 2 only Ans. (a)
- (b) 2 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
- Pair 1 is correctly matched: Rani Gaidinliu was a Naga spiritual and political leader who led a revolt against British rule in the 1930s, aligning with the CDM.
- Pair 2 is correctly matched: Matangini Hazra, a 73-year-old peasant widow, was killed by police during a Quit India Movement procession in Tamluk, Bengal, while holding the Congress flag.
- Pair 3 is incorrect: Bhikaji Cama was active in the early 20th century, primarily in Europe, and is famous for hoisting the flag in Stuttgart (1907). Usha Mehta operated the secret radio during the Quit India Movement.
Q. 2
Which of the following statements accurately describes a significant aspect of women's participation in the Swadeshi Movement (1905-08)?
- (a) It was primarily led by peasant women from rural areas.
- (b) Women's participation was strictly confined to observing purdah and supporting from within their homes.
- (c) It marked one of the first instances of urban middle-class women participating in public demonstrations, picketing, and boycotting foreign goods. Ans. (c)
- (d) The movement saw the formation of large, all-India women's combat regiments.
- (a) is incorrect: While some peasant women might have been involved, leadership and significant visible participation came from urban, educated, middle-class women.
- (b) is incorrect: The Swadeshi movement saw women breaking out of domestic confines and purdah to some extent, not being confined by it.
- (c) is accurate: Women, especially from educated urban families, engaged in public activities like picketing, processions, and promoting Swadeshi goods.
- (d) is incorrect: Combat regiments like the Rani Jhansi Regiment were formed much later, during INA's activities in the 1940s.
Practice Mains Questions
Q. 1: Gandhi's Approach to Women's Mobilization
"Gandhi's call for women's participation in the national movement was a radical departure, yet it operated within certain traditional frameworks." Critically analyze this statement, highlighting both the empowering aspects and the inherent limitations of Gandhi's approach to women's mobilization.
- Introduction: Acknowledge Gandhi's pivotal role in mass mobilization of women.
- Empowering Aspects (Radical Departure): Brought women into public/political sphere, instilled courage, emphasized moral strength, involved diverse backgrounds, strengthened movement.
- Operating within Traditional Frameworks (Limitations): Often invoked traditional roles (Sita, sacrifice), initial reluctance for direct action, focus on "special nature" over inherent equality, didn't always directly challenge deep-seated patriarchy.
- Critical Analysis: Discuss the debate (strategic vs. conservative), acknowledge net positive impact.
- Conclusion: Summarize as crucial step in women's political awakening, setting stage for deeper emancipation.
Q. 2: Role of Women's Organizations
Evaluate the role of women's organizations in shaping the discourse on women's rights and contributing to their empowerment in pre-independence India. How did their agenda evolve over time?
- Introduction: Briefly state importance of collective action for women's issues.
- Early Phase: Local/regional, social reform, education.
- National Organizations (WIA, NCWI, AIWC): Key founders, initial focus (WIA - suffrage, education; NCWI - welfare; AIWC - education, then broader).
- Evolution of Agenda: From initial education focus to political rights (suffrage), social reform, legal rights, economic empowerment, and engagement with nationalism.
- Methods & Impact: Lobbying, public campaigns, influenced legislation, provided platform, created network.
- Limitations: Often urban/elite led; issues of marginalized women not always central.
- Conclusion: Crucial in articulating "women's question," achieving gains, laying foundation for post-independence movement.