Path to GoI Act 1935: Indian Constitutional Evolution

Introduction: A Critical Constitutional Phase

The period between the implementation of the Government of India Act, 1919, and the enactment of the Government of India Act, 1935, was a critical phase in India's constitutional development and struggle for independence. It was marked by the testing and failure of dyarchy, widespread nationalist agitation, attempts by Indian leaders to draft their own constitutional proposals, and a series of negotiations with the British government.

These developments, characterized by both cooperation and conflict, incrementally paved the way for the comprehensive, albeit flawed, Government of India Act, 1935, which became a blueprint for many provisions of the independent Indian Constitution.

11.4.1: Dyarchy: Working and Failure (1921-1937)

Dyarchy, introduced by the GoI Act, 1919, in provinces, proved to be an unworkable experiment.

Mechanism of Dyarchy

Provincial subjects were divided into "Reserved" and "Transferred" subjects. It came into effect in 1921.

Reserved Subjects: Included crucial areas like finance, law and order, irrigation, land revenue. Administered by the Governor with his Executive Council, not responsible to the provincial legislature.
Transferred Subjects: Included areas like education, health, local government, agriculture, industries. Administered by the Governor with Indian Ministers chosen from elected members of the provincial legislative council. These Ministers were responsible to the legislature.

Failure of Dyarchy - Reasons

Faulty Division of Subjects: Illogical and impractical division (e.g., agriculture transferred, irrigation reserved).
Lack of Control over Finances: Finance was a reserved subject, ministers had no real budget control.
No Real Power for Ministers: Dependent on Governor/Executive Council; Governor had overriding powers.
Lack of Control over Civil Servants: ICS officers responsible to Secretary of State, not ministers.
No Collective Responsibility: Ministers appointed individually, not collectively.
Constant Interference by Governor: Undermined ministerial authority.
Limited Franchise & Legislative Powers: Restricted voter base and legislature powers.
Congress Boycott (Initially): Non-Cooperation Movement led to initial boycott.

Source: Spectrum, Bipan Chandra

11.4.2: Simon Commission (1927-1930)

The all-white composition of the Simon Commission ignited widespread Indian condemnation.

Appointment & Indian Response

Appointment (November 1927): By British Conservative government, two years ahead of schedule for review of GoI Act 1919. Officially Indian Statutory Commission.
Chairman: Sir John Simon.
Composition: All seven members were British MPs ("all-white commission"), seen as an insult to Indian self-respect.
Indian Response: Universal condemnation and boycott by almost all Indian political groups (Congress, Jinnah-faction Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals).
Slogan: "Simon Go Back." Widespread protests and hartals. Lala Lajpat Rai died from injuries during a lathi charge.

Source: NCERT Class 12, Spectrum

Recommendations of the Report (May 1930)

Abolition of Dyarchy in the provinces.
Establishment of full responsible government (Provincial Autonomy) in the provinces, with ministers responsible to the legislature.
Recommendation against a parliamentary responsible government at the Centre for the immediate future.
Continuation of separate electorates for Muslims and other minorities.
Proposal for an All-India Federation (British India + Princely States) as a long-term goal.
Did not recommend universal adult franchise; suggested extending the franchise.
Rejected the demand for Dominion Status immediately.

11.4.3: Competing Constitutional Visions

Indian leaders attempted to draft their own constitutional proposals, highlighting growing divergences.

Nehru Report (August 1928)

Context: All Parties Conference (Feb 1928) challenged by Lord Birkenhead to draft an Indian constitution.

A sub-committee headed by Motilal Nehru (with Jawaharlal Nehru as secretary) drafted the report.

Key Recommendations:

Dominion Status for India as immediate objective.
A federal structure with residuary powers vested in the Centre.
Responsible government at the Centre and in provinces. Bicameral legislature at Centre.
Nineteen Fundamental Rights (universal adult suffrage, freedom of conscience, etc.).
Rejection of separate electorates. Proposed joint electorates with reservation of seats for Muslims where minority, and for non-Muslims in NWFP. No reservation for Muslims in Punjab and Bengal.
Linguistic reorganization of provinces.
Full protection to cultural and religious interests of Muslims.

Source: Spectrum, Bipan Chandra

Jinnah's Fourteen Points (March 1929)

Context: Rejection of Nehru Report by Jinnah and a section of Muslim League over separate electorates and residuary powers.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah presented his "Fourteen Points" as minimum demands for any future constitutional settlement.

Key Demands:

Federal constitution with residuary powers vested in the provinces.
Uniform measure of provincial autonomy.
Adequate representation of minorities without reducing majority to minority/equality.
One-third Muslim representation in the Central Legislature.
Continuation of separate electorates.
No bill in legislature if three-fourths of a community oppose.
Full religious liberty to all communities.
Separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency.
Constitutional reforms in NWFP and Baluchistan.
Adequate share for Muslims in government services.
Protection of Muslim culture, language, religion, and personal laws.
No constitutional amendment without concurrence of Princely States.

These points highlighted the growing divergence between Congress and Muslim League positions.

11.4.4: Round Table Conferences (1930-1932)

Discussions in London to shape India's future constitutional framework, with Indian participation.

First RTC

November 1930 - January 1931

Boycotted by the Indian National Congress due to ongoing Civil Disobedience Movement.
Participants included Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals, Sikhs, Depressed Classes (Dr. B.R. Ambedkar), Indian Princes.
Outcome: Little achieved without Congress. Idea of All-India Federation generally agreed upon.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact

5 March 1931

Brokered by Tej Bahadur Sapru and M.R. Jayakar.
Congress agreed to suspend Civil Disobedience Movement.
Government agreed to release political prisoners (non-violent) and permit peaceful picketing.
Congress agreed to participate in the Second RTC.

Second RTC

September - December 1931

Mahatma Gandhi was the sole representative of the Congress. Sarojini Naidu, Dr. Ambedkar, Jinnah also attended.
Deadlock: Sharp disagreements over Communal Issue (separate electorates, Dr. Ambedkar's demand for Depressed Classes, Jinnah's Muslim demands) and Federal Structure (powers/participation of Princely States).
Gandhi returned disappointed. British PM Ramsay MacDonald announced intent for unilateral scheme for minority representation (Communal Award).

Third RTC

November - December 1932

Limited Participation: Congress did not participate (CDM resumed). British Labour Party also boycotted.
Outcome: Discussions formed basis for the White Paper.

11.4.5: Communal Award & Poona Pact

A controversial British announcement and a crucial Indian compromise.

Communal Award (Ramsay MacDonald Award)

Announced: 16 August 1932

Announced by British PM Ramsay MacDonald when Indian leaders failed to agree on minority representation at Second RTC.

Key Provisions:

Maintained separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Europeans.
Extended separate electorates to the Depressed Classes (Scheduled Castes) - most controversial for Gandhi.
Provided reservation of seats for women in provincial legislatures.
Allocated seats to various communities in provincial legislatures.

Gandhi's Reaction and Poona Pact

Signed: 24 September 1932

Mahatma Gandhi, imprisoned in Yerawada Jail, saw separate electorates for Depressed Classes as an attack on Indian unity. He began a fast unto death on 20 September 1932 in protest.

Poona Pact Terms:

Abandoned separate electorates for the Depressed Classes.
Instead, reserved seats for Depressed Classes were increased from 71 (Communal Award) to 147 in provincial legislatures and 18% of total in Central Legislature.
These seats were to be filled by joint electorates, but through a system of primary and secondary elections for Depressed Class candidates.

The British government accepted the Poona Pact. Source: NCERT Class 12, Spectrum

11.4.6: White Paper (March 1933)

Based on the discussions and outcomes of the three Round Table Conferences and various committee reports, the British government issued a White Paper in March 1933 outlining its proposals for constitutional reforms in India.

Key Proposals:

Establishment of an All-India Federation (comprising British Indian Provinces and Princely States).
Provincial Autonomy (abolition of dyarchy, responsible government in provinces).
Safeguards and special responsibilities for the Governor-General at the Centre and Governors in provinces.
Bicameral legislature at the Centre.

This White Paper became the main basis for the deliberations of the Joint Select Committee.

11.4.7: Joint Select Committee Report (Nov 1934)

A Joint Select Committee of the British Parliament, chaired by Lord Linlithgow, was appointed to examine the proposals of the White Paper.

The Committee largely endorsed the proposals of the White Paper, with some modifications. Its report, submitted in November 1934, formed the basis for the drafting of the Government of India Bill. This bill, after passage in the British Parliament, became the Government of India Act, 1935.

Prelims-ready Notes

Dyarchy (GoI Act 1919)

Provincial subjects: Reserved (Governor + Exec. Council, not responsible) & Transferred (Governor + Indian Ministers, responsible to legislature).
Failed due to flawed division, no financial control for ministers, overriding Governor powers.

Simon Commission (1927)

All-white; boycotted ("Simon Go Back").
Recommended: abolish dyarchy, provincial autonomy, federation (long-term), no immediate dominion status.

Nehru Report (1928)

Motilal Nehru; Dominion status, federal (residuary powers to Centre), fundamental rights, joint electorates with reserved seats for minorities.

Jinnah's 14 Points (1929)

Response to Nehru Report; Federal (residuary to provinces), 1/3 Muslim representation at Centre, separate electorates.

Round Table Conferences (1930-32)

First (1930-31): Congress boycotted.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (Mar 1931): Suspend CDM, Congress to attend 2nd RTC.
Second (Sep-Dec 1931): Gandhi (sole Congress rep); deadlock on communal representation & federal structure.
Third (Nov-Dec 1932): Congress absent.

Communal Award (Aug 1932) & Poona Pact (Sep 1932)

Communal Award: Ramsay MacDonald; extended separate electorates to Depressed Classes.
Poona Pact: Gandhi's fast; Ambedkar & Hindu leaders agreed; abandoned separate electorates for Depressed Classes, increased reserved seats for them under joint electorates.

White Paper (Mar 1933) & Joint Select Committee (Nov 1934)

White Paper: British Govt's proposals based on RTCs; basis for Joint Select Committee.
Joint Select Committee Report: Chaired by Lord Linlithgow; examined White Paper; formed basis for GoI Bill 1935.

Summary Table: Key Steps & Reports Leading to GoI Act, 1935

Event/Report	Year(s)	Key Feature/Outcome & Significance
Dyarchy (Working)	1921-1937	Dual govt in provinces; proved unworkable. Demonstrated failure of limited reforms; fueled demand for more autonomy.
Simon Commission	1927-1930	All-white, boycotted; recommended provincial autonomy, end of dyarchy. Spurred Indian constitutional efforts (Nehru Report).
Nehru Report	1928	Indian draft constitution; Dominion Status, joint electorates. First major Indian attempt; highlighted internal differences.
Jinnah's 14 Points	1929	Muslim demands; separate electorates, strong provincial autonomy. Solidified Muslim League's position.
Round Table Conferences	1930-1932	Discussions on reforms; largely failed to achieve consensus, especially on communal representation. Led to Communal Award; British decided to proceed unilaterally.
Communal Award	1932	Extended separate electorates to Depressed Classes. Led to Gandhi's fast and Poona Pact.
Poona Pact	1932	Reserved seats for Depressed Classes within joint electorates. Resolved immediate crisis over Depressed Class representation.
White Paper	1933	British government's blueprint for reforms. Basis for parliamentary scrutiny.
Joint Select Cmte Report	1934	Finalized recommendations after reviewing White Paper. Led directly to the Government of India Bill.

Mains-ready Analytical Notes

Major Debates/Discussions

Failure of Dyarchy: Not just administrative flaws but a reflection of British reluctance to transfer real power. It was designed to fail or at least to limit Indian control.
Simon Commission Boycott: Justified by Indians on grounds of national self-respect and the principle of self-determination ("Indians to decide India's constitution"). The British saw it as Indians being uncooperative.
Nehru Report vs. Jinnah's Points: Symbolized the growing communal divide. Nehru Report's rejection of separate electorates was a major point of contention for the Muslim League, leading to Jinnah hardening his stance. This debate highlighted the challenge of accommodating minority rights within a democratic framework.
Efficacy of Round Table Conferences: While they provided a platform for discussion, their failure to achieve consensus, especially on communal issues, demonstrated the deep fissures in Indian polity and the British tendency to exploit these. Congress's absence in the first and third RTCs also limited their effectiveness.
Communal Award & Poona Pact: A critical juncture. The Award threatened to fragment Hindu society further. The Poona Pact was a compromise, but debates continue whether it truly served the best long-term interests of the Depressed Classes compared to separate electorates (Ambedkar's initial preference).

Historical/Long-term Trends, Continuity & Changes

Gradual Constitutional Development: The period shows a slow, often reluctant, concession of constitutional reforms by the British, always falling short of Indian aspirations.
Rise of Communal Politics: The demand for separate electorates, reservations, and safeguards intensified, laying the groundwork for future partition.
Assertion of Indian Agency: Despite British control, Indian leaders and parties actively participated, boycotted, negotiated, and drafted their own proposals, demonstrating increasing political maturity and assertion.
Federalism: The idea of an All-India Federation was consistently discussed and became a key feature of the 1935 Act, though its implementation was flawed.

Contemporary Relevance/Significance/Impact

Legacy of Reservations: The Poona Pact established the principle of reservations for Scheduled Castes within a joint electorate system, a feature that continues in independent India's constitution and is a subject of ongoing debate and policy.
Federal Structure: The debates during this period on Centre-State relations and provincial autonomy influenced the framing of India's quasi-federal structure.
Minority Rights: The intense discussions on minority rights and representation continue to be relevant in contemporary Indian political discourse.
Constitutionalism: This period, despite its turmoil, reinforced the path of constitutionalism as a means of political struggle and reform for many Indian leaders.

Current Affairs & Recent Developments

While this is a historical topic, its themes have enduring relevance:

Federalism Debates: Discussions on strengthening or restructuring federal relations in India sometimes draw parallels to historical demands for provincial autonomy. For instance, debates around GST compensation to states or the scope of central agencies' jurisdiction touch upon federal principles discussed in the run-up to 1935.
Representation and Social Justice: Contemporary discussions on ensuring adequate representation for marginalized communities (e.g., debates around a caste census or extending reservations to new groups) connect to the historical struggles for representation by groups like the Depressed Classes. (Source: Newspaper articles, policy discussions)
Anniversaries/Commemorations: Anniversaries of key events (e.g., Poona Pact) might see renewed academic or public interest and discussions.

UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims MCQs

1. UPSC Prelims 2016

Q. The Montague-Chelmsford Proposals were related to

(a) social reforms
(b) educational reforms
(c) reforms in police administration
(d) constitutional reforms

Answer: (d) constitutional reforms

Hint: The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms led to the Government of India Act, 1919, which introduced dyarchy and other constitutional changes.

2. UPSC Prelims 2010

Q. With reference to Simon Commission’s recommendations, which one of the following statements is correct?

(a) It recommended the replacement of diarchy with responsible government in the provinces.
(b) It proposed the setting up of inter-provincial council under the Home Department.
(c) It suggested the abolition of bicameral legislature at the Centre.
(d) It recommended the creation of Indian Police Service with a provision for increased pay and allowances for British recruits as compared to Indian recruits.

Answer: (a) It recommended the replacement of diarchy with responsible government in the provinces.

Hint: This was one of the key recommendations of the Simon Commission.

3. UPSC Prelims 2012 - rephrased from a similar question

Q. The Poona Pact which was signed between B.R. Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi in 1932 provided for:

(a) The creation of dominion status for India.
(b) Separate electorates for Muslims.
(c) Reserved seats for the Depressed Classes in provincial and central legislatures with joint electorates.
(d) The convening of a Third Round Table Conference.

Answer: (c) Reserved seats for the Depressed Classes in provincial and central legislatures with joint electorates.

Hint: The core of the Poona Pact was to provide increased reserved seats for Depressed Classes but through joint electorates, abandoning the Communal Award's separate electorates for them.

Mains Questions & Trend Analysis

1. UPSC Mains 2018

Q. Throw light on the significance of the thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi in the present times.

Direction (for Poona Pact context)

Explain Gandhi's stance against separate electorates for Depressed Classes as a means to prevent division within Hindu society. Discuss his emphasis on social reform and eradication of untouchability. Link this to the Poona Pact as a compromise. Relate his ideals of social cohesion and upliftment of the marginalized to contemporary challenges of caste discrimination and social justice.

Value Points: Gandhi's opposition to vivisection of Hindu society, fast as a moral weapon, emphasis on internal reform, Poona Pact as a negotiated settlement, relevance to ongoing efforts for social equality.

2. UPSC Mains 2019

Q. Why did the 'Moderates' fail to carry conviction with the nation about their proclaimed loyalty to the British Crown?

Direction (for 1920s-30s context of constitutional offers)

The failure of Dyarchy, the all-white Simon Commission, and the limited scope of RTCs demonstrated that British offers were often too little, too late, and designed to retain ultimate British control. This eroded trust even among those willing to negotiate, pushing more people towards stronger demands like Purna Swaraj.

Value Points: Experience of Dyarchy, exclusion from Simon Commission, British reluctance to grant Dominion Status quickly, divide-and-rule tactics in RTCs.

3. Hypothetical Mains Question

Q. Critically examine the evolution of the demand for Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) in the Indian National Congress during the 1920s. How did the events leading up to the Government of India Act, 1935, influence this demand?

Direction

Trace the shift from demands for dominion status (Nehru Report) to Purna Swaraj (Lahore Congress 1929). Discuss how the perceived inadequacy of British responses (Simon Commission, failed RTCs, limited scope of reforms proposed in White Paper) strengthened the call for complete independence rather than just reforms within the imperial structure. The 1935 Act, while a step, did not grant Purna Swaraj.

Value Points: Frustration with slow pace of reforms, impact of Simon Commission boycott, influence of younger radical leaders (Nehru, Bose), Lahore Congress resolution (1929), Civil Disobedience Movement, failure of RTCs to satisfy Congress, limitations of the 1935 Act (Governor's powers, no dominion status yet).

Trend Analysis (UPSC Questioning Style - Last 10 Years)

Prelims: Focus on specific features/recommendations of various Acts, Commissions (Simon), Reports (Nehru), Pacts (Poona). Questions about participation in RTCs (who attended/boycotted). Chronology of events is important. Key personalities involved (Gandhi, Ambedkar, Jinnah, Motilal Nehru). Conceptual understanding of terms like 'Dyarchy', 'Separate Electorates', 'Dominion Status'. Fewer questions directly on the White Paper or Joint Select Committee itself, but more on the events leading to them.

Mains: Analytical questions focusing on "why" and "how" – e.g., why dyarchy failed, significance of Simon Commission boycott, reasons for RTC deadlocks. Questions assessing the impact of these developments on the nationalist movement or on specific communities. Often requires linking multiple events to show a process or evolution (e.g., evolution of communal politics, path to provincial autonomy). Increasingly, questions might demand a critical evaluation or assessment of the success/failure of certain policies or negotiations.

Original MCQs for Prelims

1. Simon Commission Boycott

Q. Which of the following was a key reason for the Indian National Congress's rejection of the Simon Commission's proposals and its subsequent boycott?

1. The Commission recommended the continuation of Dyarchy at the provincial level.
2. It proposed immediate partition of India into Hindu-majority and Muslim-majority areas.
3. All members of the Commission were British, with no Indian representation.
4. It advocated for the abolition of separate electorates for all minority communities.

Which of the statements given above is correct?

(a) 1 and 4 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 only

Answer: (b) 3 only

Explanation: The primary reason for the universal boycott was its all-white composition, seen as an insult. Statement 1 is incorrect; it recommended abolishing dyarchy. Statement 2 is incorrect; partition was not its proposal. Statement 4 is incorrect; it generally supported continuing separate electorates.

2. Chronological Order of Events

Q. Consider the following events in the path to the Government of India Act, 1935:

1. Publication of the Simon Commission Report.
2. Signing of the Poona Pact.
3. First Round Table Conference.
4. Announcement of the Communal Award.

Arrange these events in their correct chronological order:

(a) 1-3-4-2
(b) 3-1-2-4
(c) 1-4-3-2
(d) 3-2-1-4

Answer: (a) 1-3-4-2

Explanation: Simon Commission Report (May 1930) -> First RTC (Nov 1930-Jan 1931) -> Communal Award (Aug 1932) -> Poona Pact (Sep 1932).

Original Descriptive Questions for Mains

1. Round Table Conferences: Contributions and Shortcomings

Q. "The Round Table Conferences (1930-32) were a significant yet ultimately frustrating exercise in constitution-making for India." Critically evaluate this statement, highlighting both their contributions and shortcomings in paving the way for the Government of India Act, 1935.

Key Points/Structure for Answering

Introduction: Briefly state the context and purpose of the RTCs.

Contributions/Significance: Platform for Indian voices (various communities, princes) to be heard directly; Agreement on certain principles like All-India Federation and some measure of provincial responsibility; Gandhi's participation in 2nd RTC gave it legitimacy; Discussions informed the White Paper and subsequently the GoI Act 1935.

Shortcomings/Frustrations: Failure to achieve consensus, especially on communal representation; Congress absence in 1st and 3rd RTCs weakened their impact; British used differences among Indians to delay substantial power transfer; Princely states' reluctance; Overall outcome fell short of Congress's demands.

Impact on GoI Act 1935: How the RTC outcomes (or lack thereof) shaped the 1935 Act's provisions (e.g., complex federal structure, safeguards, separate electorates continued).

Conclusion: Balanced assessment – RTCs were a necessary step, exposed cleavages, but moved the constitutional process forward, albeit not to Indian satisfaction.

2. Dyarchy Failure & Simon Commission Impact

Q. The failure of Dyarchy and the Indian response to the Simon Commission were pivotal in accelerating the demand for greater self-government and shaping the subsequent constitutional negotiations in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Discuss.

Key Points/Structure for Answering

Introduction: Briefly state the limited nature of GoI Act 1919 and the context.

Failure of Dyarchy: Explain why it failed (structural flaws, lack of real power/finance, Governor's authority); How this disillusionment fueled demand for full provincial autonomy.

Indian Response to Simon Commission: Reasons for boycott (all-white, insult); Nature of protests ("Simon Go Back"); Impact: Galvanized nationalist sentiment, united groups, led to Indian constitution drafting (Nehru Report).

Shaping Subsequent Negotiations: Rejection of Simon Commission forced British to RTCs; Nehru Report became benchmark; Heightened political consciousness made it harder for British to impose; Strengthened arguments for provincial autonomy (key feature of 1935 Act).

Conclusion: These two developments exposed limitations of British reforms and showcased Indian determination, setting an assertive tone for future discussions.