India's Defining Decade: Constitutional Path to Independence & Partition (1939-1947)

The period between 1939 and 1947 was one of the most transformative and tumultuous in modern Indian history. It witnessed the profound impact of World War II on the Indian nationalist movement, a series of British attempts to resolve the political deadlock through constitutional proposals, the intensification of communal politics culminating in the demand for Pakistan, and the eventual transfer of power. This era saw a rapid succession of constitutional parleys, mass movements, and escalating communal tensions, ultimately leading to the hard-won independence of India but also the tragic partition of the subcontinent. Key milestones included the August Offer, Cripps Mission, Quit India Movement, Wavell Plan, Cabinet Mission, and finally, the Mountbatten Plan, which paved the way for the Indian Independence Act of 1947.

Core Constitutional Developments

Impact of World War II & Resignation of Congress Ministries

  • WWII declared (September 1939): India declared belligerent by Viceroy Linlithgow without consulting Indian leaders.
  • Congress's Stance: Offered conditional support, demanding declaration of war aims and responsible government.
  • British Refusal: Led to resignation of Congress ministries in eight provinces (Oct-Nov 1939).
  • Muslim League's "Deliverance Day": Jinnah and League celebrated Congress ministries' resignation (Dec 22, 1939), exacerbating communal divides.
  • Impact: Created political vacuum, hardened stances, forced British to make constitutional proposals for Indian cooperation.

August Offer (1940)

Context: Britain's worsening war situation (fall of France).

Proposals (Viceroy Linlithgow):

  • Dominion status as the objective for India (no timeframe).
  • Expansion of Viceroy's Executive Council to include more Indians.
  • Setting up of a War Advisory Council.
  • Indians' right to frame their constitution (post-war), subject to defense, minorities, treaties, All India Services.
  • Assurance power not transferred to government "denied by large and powerful elements" (implicit veto to Muslim League).

Rejection & Significance:

  • Rejection: Congress rejected for lack of immediate self-government; League welcomed veto but reiterated Pakistan demand (Lahore Resolution, March 1940).
  • Significance: First official British acknowledgement of Indians' right to frame constitution. Veto to League became major stumbling block.

Cripps Mission (1942)

Context: Worsening war for Allies (Japan's advance), pressure from USA and China.

Proposals (Sir Stafford Cripps):

  • Dominion Status after war, with right to secede from Commonwealth.
  • Constituent Assembly post-war (partly elected, partly nominated by princely states).
  • Provinces unwilling to accept constitution could opt out and form separate union.
  • British to negotiate treaty for power transfer, safeguard minorities.
  • During war, Viceroy's Executive Council reconstituted with Indian leaders, but British retain defense control.

Rejection & Significance:

  • Congress: Objected to Dominion status, princely state nominees, provincial secession. Gandhi: "post-dated cheque on a crashing bank."
  • Muslim League: Criticized lack of explicit Pakistan provision.
  • Significance: More concrete, but failure embittered relations and led to Quit India Movement. "Right of secession" was major concession.

Quit India Movement & its Aftermath (1942)

  • Launch (August 8, 1942): "Do or Die" call by Gandhi. Spontaneous mass uprising after arrest of all major Congress leaders.
  • Features: Leaderless, widespread, attacks on symbols of British authority.
  • Suppression: Brutally suppressed by the British.
  • Aftermath:
    • Demonstrated depth of nationalist feeling, impossibility of British rule without Indian consent.
    • Weakened Congress organizationally due to repression.
    • Muslim League used this period to consolidate, as it did not participate.
    • Convinced British a new approach was needed for transfer of power.

Wavell Plan & Shimla Conference (1945)

Context: End of WWII in Europe, release of Congress leaders.

Wavell Plan (Viceroy Lord Wavell):

  • Reconstruction of Viceroy's Executive Council to be entirely Indian, except Viceroy and Commander-in-Chief.
  • "Caste Hindus" and Muslims to have equal representation.
  • Council to function as interim government within 1935 Act (Viceroy's veto maintained).

Shimla Conference & Significance:

  • Shimla Conference (June-July 1945): Convened to discuss Wavell Plan.
  • Deadlock: Failed due to Jinnah's insistence only Muslim League could nominate all Muslim members, and Congress opposition to this.
  • Significance: Showed widening chasm between Congress and League. British recognition of League strengthened Jinnah's position.

Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)

Context: Labour Party government in Britain keen on transferring power. Post-war exhaustion, INA trials, RIN mutiny.

Members: Pethick-Lawrence (Secretary of State), Sir Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander.

Proposals (May 16, 1946):

  • Rejection of Pakistan: Due to non-Muslim majorities in proposed areas, division issues, defense/communication.
  • Three-tiered Federal Structure:
    • Union of India: Foreign affairs, defense, communications (residuary with provinces).
    • Provinces grouped into Three Sections/Groups: A (Hindu-majority), B (NW Muslim-majority), C (NE Muslim-majority, incl. Assam).
    • Provinces could opt out of group after first election.
  • Constituent Assembly: Elected by provincial assemblies (proportional representation). Princely states send nominees.
  • Interim Government: Set up immediately with major Indian parties.

Acceptance & Rejection, Communal Violence:

  • Initial Acceptance: Congress accepted long-term plan, reservations on grouping. League accepted, seeing compulsory grouping as step to Pakistan.
  • Disagreements & Rejection: Conflicting interpretations of "grouping" (optional vs. compulsory). Nehru's statement (July 1946) on CA being "unfettered" alarmed League.
  • League's Withdrawal & "Direct Action": Jinnah withdrew acceptance (late July 1946), called for "Direct Action Day" (August 16, 1946), leading to "Great Calcutta Killings" and widespread communal riots.
  • Significance: Last serious British attempt to keep India united. Its failure made partition almost inevitable.

Interim Government (Sept 1946) & Constituent Assembly (Dec 1946)

  • Interim Government: Formed Sep 2, 1946, with Jawaharlal Nehru as de-facto head. League initially refused, then joined Oct 1946 to obstruct. Liaquat Ali Khan became Finance Minister.
  • Constituent Assembly: Elections July 1946 (Congress majority). First meeting Dec 9, 1946, boycotted by Muslim League. Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha temporary president; Dr. Rajendra Prasad later elected.
  • Significance: League's non-cooperation demonstrated unworkability of united political solution.

Attlee's Announcement (February 20, 1947)

  • PM Clement Attlee's Declaration: British would quit India by June 30, 1948, at the latest.
  • Power transferred to responsible Indian government. If no fully representative CA, British would consider transferring power to central/provincial governments or "other way as may seem most reasonable" (hinting at partition/Balkanization).
  • Lord Wavell replaced by Lord Mountbatten as Viceroy for speedy transfer.
  • Impact: Set definite deadline, forced parties to confront reality, increased communal tension, Congress accepted implicit possibility of partition.

Mountbatten Plan / June 3rd Plan (1947)

Context: Escalating communal riots, paralysis of Interim Government, urgency of Attlee's deadline. Lord Mountbatten arrived March 1947, concluded united India impossible.

The Plan (Announced June 3, 1947):

  • Principle of Partition: India divided into two Dominions – India and Pakistan.
  • Procedure for Partition:
    • Bengal & Punjab: Provincial assemblies vote for partition (both voted for partition).
    • Sindh & Baluchistan: Assemblies/Shahi Jirga decide (both opted Pakistan).
    • NWFP: Referendum (voted Pakistan, Congress boycotted).
    • Sylhet (Assam): Referendum to join East Bengal (voted East Bengal).
  • Boundary Commission: Sir Cyril Radcliffe to demarcate boundaries.
  • Princely States: British paramountcy to lapse. Free to join either Dominion (Mountbatten urged accession).
  • Transfer of Power Date: Advanced to August 15, 1947.

Acceptance & Significance:

  • Acceptance: Accepted by Congress, Muslim League, Sikh leaders. Congress accepted as unavoidable necessity to end violence and achieve quick independence.
  • Significance: Provided blueprint for partition and power transfer. Swift, surgical, tragic solution.

Indian Independence Act, 1947

Passage: Enacted by British Parliament on July 18, 1947, based on Mountbatten Plan.

Key Provisions:

  • Implemented Mountbatten Plan legally.
  • Created two independent Dominions of India and Pakistan from Aug 15, 1947 (Pakistan: Sindh, British Baluchistan, NWFP, West Punjab, East Bengal).
  • Abolished offices of Viceroy and Secretary of State for India.
  • Each Dominion to have Governor-General (constitutional head, appointed by King on cabinet advice). (Mountbatten: first GG of India; Jinnah: first GG of Pakistan).
  • Constituent Assemblies of each Dominion sovereign, frame own constitutions, decide Commonwealth membership. Function as interim legislatures.
  • British paramountcy over Princely States lapsed Aug 15, 1947. States free to accede or remain independent.
  • Division of assets, army, civil services between Dominions.
  • Terminated British responsibility for governance.

Significance:

  • End of British Rule: Culmination of freedom struggle.
  • Birth of Nations: Creation of two sovereign states.
  • Tragic Partition: Unprecedented communal violence, mass displacement, deep scars. Radcliffe Line.
  • Foundation for New Order: CA functioned as sovereign body, led to Indian Constitution (1950), democratic republic.
  • Challenges: Refugee rehabilitation, border disputes, economic reconstruction, integration of princely states.
  • Geopolitical Shift: Emergence of India and Pakistan altered world map.

A Timeline of Independence

September 1939: WWII Declared for India

Viceroy Linlithgow declares India a belligerent without consultation. Congress Ministries resign in protest.

August 1940: August Offer

British offer Dominion Status as objective and an expanded Viceroy's Executive Council. Rejected by Congress, strengthened League's veto.

March 1942: Cripps Mission

Sir Stafford Cripps proposes post-war Dominion Status with right to secede. Rejected by all, leads to Quit India Movement.

August 1942: Quit India Movement

Gandhi's "Do or Die" call sparks a mass uprising. Leaders arrested, movement brutally suppressed.

June-July 1945: Wavell Plan & Shimla Conference

Attempt to form an all-Indian Executive Council with equal Hindu-Muslim representation. Fails due to Jinnah's insistence on League nominating all Muslims.

May 1946: Cabinet Mission Plan

Proposes a united, three-tiered federal structure and Constituent Assembly. Initially accepted, then League withdraws over interpretation of grouping clause.

August 16, 1946: Direct Action Day

Muslim League's call for Pakistan leads to widespread communal riots, starting with the "Great Calcutta Killings."

September 1946: Interim Government Formed

Jawaharlal Nehru heads the Interim Government. Muslim League later joins to obstruct.

December 1946: Constituent Assembly Meets

First meeting of the Constituent Assembly, boycotted by the Muslim League.

February 20, 1947: Attlee's Announcement

PM Clement Attlee declares British will quit India by June 30, 1948, and appoints Lord Mountbatten as Viceroy.

June 3, 1947: Mountbatten Plan Announced

Blueprint for partition into India and Pakistan, outlining procedure for provincial decisions and boundary demarcation. Accepted by major parties.

July 18, 1947: Indian Independence Act Passed

British Parliament enacts the law giving legal effect to the Mountbatten Plan, creating two sovereign Dominions.

August 15, 1947: Independence & Partition

India gains independence, but the subcontinent is tragically partitioned into India and Pakistan.

Key Proposals & Outcomes (1940-1947)

Proposal/Event Year Key Features Outcome/Significance
August Offer 1940 Dominion Status (aim), expanded council, post-war body for constitution, minority veto. Rejected by Congress & League; Veto strengthened League.
Cripps Mission 1942 Post-war Dominion Status with secession right, Constituent Assembly, provinces can opt out. Rejected by all major parties; Led to Quit India Movement.
Wavell Plan/Shimla Conference 1945 Reconstituted Executive Council with equal Hindu-Muslim numbers. Failed due to Jinnah's insistence on League nominating all Muslims.
Cabinet Mission Plan 1946 Rejection of Pakistan, 3-tier federation, Constituent Assembly, Interim Govt. Initially accepted, then League withdrew; "Direct Action," communal violence. Last attempt at united India.
Attlee's Announcement Feb 1947 British withdrawal by June 1948, power transfer. Mountbatten appointed. Set firm deadline, hastened process, implied partition if no agreement.
Mountbatten Plan (June 3rd) 1947 Partition of India, procedure for provincial decisions, Boundary Commission, Princely states' choice. Accepted; Led directly to partition and independence.
Indian Independence Act July 1947 Legal framework for transfer of power, creation of India & Pakistan, sovereign Constituent Assemblies. Formalized independence and partition.

Exam Preparation Insights

Prelims-ready Notes
  • WWII Impact: Resignation of Congress ministries (1939); "Deliverance Day" by Muslim League.
  • August Offer (1940): Dominion Status (objective); Constituent Assembly (post-war); Veto to minorities (League). Rejected.
  • Cripps Mission (1942): Dominion Status (post-war, right to secede); Constituent Assembly; Provinces can opt-out. Rejected ("post-dated cheque").
  • Quit India Movement (1942): "Do or Die"; Spontaneous uprising; Brutal suppression.
  • Wavell Plan & Shimla Conference (1945): Reconstitute Executive Council (equal Hindu-Muslim numbers); Failed due to League's demand to nominate all Muslims.
  • Cabinet Mission Plan (1946): Rejected Pakistan; 3-tier federation (Union, Groups, Provinces); Constituent Assembly; Interim Govt. Accepted, then League withdrew; "Direct Action Day" (Aug 16, 1946) -> communal riots.
  • Interim Government (Sept 1946): Nehru head; League joined later to obstruct.
  • Constituent Assembly (Dec 9, 1946): Boycotted by League.
  • Attlee's Announcement (Feb 20, 1947): British to quit by June 1948; Mountbatten new Viceroy.
  • Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947): Partition into India & Pakistan; Provincial assemblies/referendums to decide; Boundary Commission (Radcliffe); Princely states' paramountcy lapse; Power transfer Aug 15, 1947.
  • Indian Independence Act (July 18, 1947): Implemented Mountbatten Plan; Created 2 Dominions; Abolished Viceroy/Secy of State; Sovereign Constituent Assemblies; Paramountcy over princely states lapsed.
Mains-ready Analytical Notes

Factors Leading to Partition:

  • British Policy of 'Divide and Rule': Separate electorates, communal award, encouragement to Muslim League.
  • Rise of Muslim League & Jinnah's Leadership: From ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity to staunch proponent of Two-Nation Theory.
  • Congress's Miscalculations/Failures: Inability to effectively counter communalism, occasional insensitivity to minority concerns.
  • Communal Violence: Escalating riots made co-existence seem impossible.
  • Failure of Constitutional Negotiations: Breakdown of Cripps, Wavell, and especially Cabinet Mission Plan.
  • Impact of WWII: Weakened Britain, increased pressure for decolonization.
  • Attlee's Deadline: Forced a quick solution, little room for protracted negotiations.
  • Role of Mountbatten: Pushed for swift resolution, "Operation Seduce" / "Plan Balkan."

Was Partition Inevitable?

  • Arguments for Inevitability (by 1946-47): Deep communal divide, widespread violence, failure of Cabinet Mission, Congress's reluctant acceptance.
  • Arguments against Inevitability (earlier stages): Could stronger Congress outreach, accommodative British policies, or different leadership decisions have altered course?
  • Scholarly Debate: Continues to be debated, but by 1947, very difficult to avoid.

Nature of Transfer of Power:

  • Negotiated Settlement: Largely a negotiated transfer, under duress of mass movements.
  • "Reluctant Imperialism" Giving Way: Britain, weakened by war, sought an exit while protecting interests.
  • Speed and Haste: Final phase (1947) marked by extreme speed, contributing to partition chaos.

Legacy of the Indian Independence Act, 1947:

  • Positive: Enabled sovereign democratic republic, constitution, nation-building.
  • Negative: Legacy of bitterness, refugee crises, border disputes, communal tensions.
  • "Lapse of paramountcy" created challenges for integrating princely states.

Role of Constituent Assembly:

  • Initially under Cabinet Mission, became fully sovereign after IIA.
  • Meticulous framing of Indian Constitution, balancing diverse interests, was monumental achievement.
Current Affairs & Recent Developments (Historical Context)
  • Partition Horrors Remembrance Day (August 14th): Observed in India since 2021 to remember victims.
  • Discussions on Citizenship and Refugees: Contemporary debates sometimes reference Partition crisis.
  • Declassification of Historical Documents: Occasional new insights or reignited historical debates.
  • Museums and Memorials: Ongoing efforts to preserve memory (e.g., Partition Museum in Amritsar).
  • Academic Research: Continued scholarly work on different facets of independence and partition.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims MCQs

1. UPSC CSE 2010

Q. The Cabinet Mission to India was headed by:

  • (a) Stafford Cripps
  • (b) A.V. Alexander
  • (c) Lord Pethick-Lawrence
  • (d) Hugh Gaitskell

Answer: (c)

Hint/Explanation: Lord Pethick-Lawrence was the Secretary of State for India and headed the Cabinet Mission. Cripps and Alexander were the other two members.

2. UPSC CSE 2012

Q. With reference to the proposals of Cripps Mission, consider the following statements:

  • 1. The Constituent Assembly would have members nominated by the Provincial Assemblies as well as the Princely States.
  • 2. Any Province, which is not prepared to accept the new Constitution would have the right to sign a separate agreement with Britain regarding its future status.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  • (a) 1 only
  • (b) 2 only
  • (c) Both 1 and 2
  • (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: (b)

Hint/Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect as members from provincial assemblies were to be elected, not nominated. Princely states' representatives were to be nominated. Statement 2 is correct, referring to the right of provinces to opt out.

3. UPSC CSE 2016

Q. The plan of Sir Stafford Cripps envisaged that after the Second World War:

  • (a) India should be granted complete independence.
  • (b) India should be partitioned into two before granting independence.
  • (c) India should be made a republic with the condition that she will join the Commonwealth.
  • (d) India should be given Dominion status.

Answer: (d)

Hint/Explanation: The Cripps Mission proposed Dominion Status for India after the war, with the right to secede from the Commonwealth. Complete independence was Congress's demand.

Mains Questions

1. UPSC CSE 1998 (adapted)

Q. Why did the Cabinet Mission Plan fail?

Direction/Value Points:

  • Conflicting Interpretations (Grouping of Provinces, Powers of Constituent Assembly).
  • Mistrust between Congress and League.
  • League's Intransigence and Congress's Stance.
  • Immediate Aftermath: League's withdrawal and "Direct Action Day."

2. UPSC GS-I type

Q. "The Indian Independence Act, 1947 was in essence an embodiment of the Mountbatten Plan." Elucidate.

Direction/Value Points:

  • Explain Mountbatten Plan as final roadmap, IIA as its legislative enactment.
  • Map key provisions of Mountbatten Plan (Partition principle, provincial decision methods, Boundary Commission, lapse of paramountcy, advanced date) to corresponding legal provisions in IIA.
  • Conclusion: Act meticulously translated political agreement into constitutional reality.

3. UPSC GS-I type

Q. To what extent did the Quit India Movement influence the process of India's independence? Discuss.

Direction/Value Points:

  • Immediate Impact: Suppression, arrests, temporary weakening.
  • Long-term Influence: Demonstrated depth of nationalism, shifted British attitude (rule untenable), strengthened resolve for independence, impact on British resources/will, indirectly strengthened League (due to Congress imprisonment), paved way for negotiations.
  • Limitations: Did not directly lead to independence.
  • Conclusion: Crucial factor in convincing British of need to transfer power, accelerating process, despite immediate suppression.

Trend Analysis (UPSC Questioning Style - Last 10 Years)

  • Prelims: High Frequency, focus on provisions, chronology, key personalities, conceptual clarity for reasons of success/failure.
  • Mains: Analytical and critical questions on causes, consequences, significance. Recurring theme of factors leading to partition. Role of key missions/plans, evolution of British policy, interplay of forces. Impact and Legacy.
  • Topic remains highly relevant and frequently tested.
Original MCQs for Prelims

1. Q. Consider the following events in the lead-up to India's independence:

  • 1. Attlee's Announcement of British withdrawal.
  • 2. Formation of the Interim Government headed by Nehru.
  • 3. Muslim League's "Direct Action Day."
  • 4. Shimla Conference.

Arrange these events in their correct chronological order:

  • (a) 4, 3, 2, 1
  • (b) 4, 2, 3, 1
  • (c) 2, 3, 4, 1
  • (d) 3, 4, 2, 1

Answer: (a)

Explanation: Shimla Conference (June-July 1945) → Direct Action Day (August 16, 1946) → Formation of Interim Government (September 2, 1946) → Attlee's Announcement (February 20, 1947).

2. Q. Which of the following was NOT a proposal of the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)?

  • (a) Rejection of the demand for a sovereign Pakistan.
  • (b) A three-tiered federal structure for India.
  • (c) Immediate granting of Dominion Status to India with the right to secede.
  • (d) Formation of a Constituent Assembly elected by provincial assemblies.

Answer: (c)

Explanation: Immediate Dominion Status with the right to secede was a feature of the Cripps Mission (1942), not the Cabinet Mission. The Cabinet Mission proposed a Union of India and the process for framing a constitution.