The Rise of Mass Politics in India

Exploring the transformative period of Rowlatt Satyagraha, Jallianwala Bagh, Khilafat, and Non-Cooperation Movement

Begin Exploration Quick Summary

The Turning Point: Post-WWI India

The period immediately following World War I witnessed a dramatic escalation in the Indian nationalist struggle, marking a definitive shift towards mass politics under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. The economic hardships caused by the war, coupled with broken British promises of self-government, fueled widespread discontent. The draconian Rowlatt Act (1919), empowering the government with arbitrary powers of arrest and detention, was met with Gandhi's call for the Rowlatt Satyagraha, his first all-India mass protest. The brutal Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar (April 1919) further inflamed national sentiments and exposed the ruthless nature of British rule. Concurrently, the Khilafat Movement, arising from concerns over the fate of the Ottoman Caliphate, provided a unique opportunity for Hindu-Muslim unity. Gandhi skillfully merged these currents into the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922), a nationwide campaign of boycotting British institutions and promoting Swadeshi. Though abruptly withdrawn after the Chauri Chaura incident, the Non-Cooperation Movement fundamentally transformed the character of the freedom struggle, broadened its social base, and instilled a new sense of fearlessness and self-confidence among the Indian masses.

World War I: A Catalyst for Change

World War I (1914-1918) had a profound and multifaceted impact on India, creating a fertile ground for mass agitation.

Economic Hardship

  • Heavy taxation & inflation
  • Rise in essential commodity prices
  • Widespread economic distress

Broken Promises

  • Expectations of self-government post-war
  • Montagu Declaration (1917) seen as inadequate
  • Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919) disappointing

Increased Aspirations

  • Hypocrisy of colonial rule exposed
  • Indian soldiers gained new ideas of freedom
  • Weakened prestige of imperial powers

The Draconian Rowlatt Act (March 1919)

Instead of political concessions, the British government passed repressive legislation, sparking widespread outrage.

Recommendations & Provisions

  • Based on recommendations of the Rowlatt Committee (Sedition Committee) chaired by Sir Sidney Rowlatt.
  • Gave government extraordinary powers to suppress political activities.
  • Allowed arbitrary arrest and detention without trial for up to two years.
  • Provided for in-camera summary trials with no right to appeal.
  • Popularly known by the slogan: "No Dalil, No Vakil, No Appeal" (No arguments, No lawyer, No appeal).

Widespread Indian Opposition

The Act was met with universal condemnation from Indian leaders and the public, who saw it as a betrayal of wartime support and a draconian measure to crush civil liberties. It was dubbed the "Black Act." All elected Indian members of the Imperial Legislative Council voted against it, but it was passed using the official majority.

Rowlatt Satyagraha (April 1919)

Mahatma Gandhi launched his first nationwide agitation against the Rowlatt Act.

Gandhi's Call for Satyagraha

Gandhi, horrified by the Act, called for an all-India hartal (strike) on April 6, 1919. He formed a Satyagraha Sabha to organize the agitation. This marked his first attempt at a nationwide mass protest based on Satyagraha principles.

Protests and Demonstrations

The hartal received an overwhelming response with widespread strikes, demonstrations, and processions. Hindu-Muslim unity was a notable feature. While largely peaceful, incidents of violence occurred in some places (Delhi, Ahmedabad, Punjab) due to government repression.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (Amritsar, 13 April 1919)

This horrific event became a turning point, galvanizing anti-British sentiment like never before.

Background

  • Punjab was a focal point of Rowlatt Act protests.
  • Arrest of popular local leaders, Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal, in Amritsar on April 10, 1919, led to widespread demonstrations.
  • City placed under de facto martial law; public meetings banned by General Reginald Dyer.

The Event (Baisakhi Day)

  • On April 13, 1919 (Baisakhi day), a large, peaceful, unarmed crowd gathered at Jallianwala Bagh.
  • General Dyer ordered troops to open fire without warning on the trapped crowd.
  • Firing continued until ammunition was exhausted; exit blocked.
  • Official death toll: 379; nationalist estimates: over 1,000 dead, thousands injured.

Brutal Repression in Punjab

Following the massacre, martial law was formally imposed. British unleashed a reign of terror, including crawling orders, public floggings, and other humiliating punishments.

National Outrage

The massacre sent shockwaves, exposing the brutal face of British rule. Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest. Gandhi lost all faith in British justice.

Inquiry Committees

Hunter Committee (British)

  • Headed by Lord Hunter.
  • Condemned Dyer's actions as an "error of judgment."
  • Largely whitewashed atrocities; no severe punishment for Dyer (relieved of command).
  • Many in Britain hailed Dyer as a hero.

Congress Inquiry Committee (Indian)

  • Non-official committee including Gandhi, Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das.
  • Condemned Dyer's actions as inhuman and called for his punishment.

The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924)

This religio-political movement provided a crucial platform for Hindu-Muslim unity.

Background & Objectives

  • Defeat of Ottoman Turkey in WWI.
  • Fears about the harsh Treaty of Sevres (1920) and dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire.
  • Concern over abolition of the Caliphate (Khalifa), the religious head of Sunni Muslims.
  • Objective: Pressure British government for lenient attitude towards Turkey and preservation of Caliphate's authority.

Leadership & Gandhi's Support

  • Leaders: Ali Brothers (Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali Jauhar), Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Hasrat Mohani, Dr. M.A. Ansari.
  • All India Khilafat Committee formed in Bombay (March 1919).
  • Gandhi's Support: Saw it as a "golden opportunity" for Hindu-Muslim unity to achieve Swaraj. Became President of All India Khilafat Conference (Nov 1919).

The Non-Cooperation Movement (Aug 1920 – Feb 1922)

The NCM was the first truly nationwide mass movement, combining Khilafat with the demand for Swaraj.

The movement was launched on three main issues:

  • Punjab Wrongs: Redressal for Jallianwala Bagh and martial law atrocities.
  • Khilafat Wrongs: Restoration of Caliph's position and Ottoman integrity.
  • Attainment of Swaraj: Self-rule for India, Gandhi promised "Swaraj within a year."

Congress Adoption:

  • Calcutta Special Session (September 1920): Gandhi's resolution approved despite initial opposition.
  • Nagpur Annual Session (December 1920): NCM formally ratified. Congress constitution revamped for mass base:
    • Creation of Congress Working Committee (CWC) of 15 members.
    • Formation of Provincial Congress Committees (PCCs) on linguistic basis.
    • Lowered membership fee (four annas/year).

A. Boycott:

  • Government schools and colleges.
  • Law courts by lawyers and litigants.
  • Legislative councils (elections largely boycotted).
  • Foreign cloth and goods.
  • Surrender of titles and honorary offices.
  • Official functions.

B. Swadeshi (Constructive Programme):

  • Promotion of national schools and colleges (Kashi Vidyapith, Gujarat Vidyapith, Jamia Millia Islamia).
  • Promotion of Khadi and Charkha.
  • Establishment of Panchayat courts.
  • Promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity.
  • Work for removal of untouchability.

Phases:

  • Initial: Enthusiastic response for title surrender, school/college/court boycott.
  • Later: Mass mobilization, picketing of liquor shops, foreign cloth shops; nationwide Hartals.
  • Tilak Swaraj Fund: Oversubscribed (over Rs. 1 crore collected).
  • Visit of Prince of Wales (Nov 1921) greeted with nationwide boycotts.

Mass Participation:

  • Students and Women: Active in boycott and picketing.
  • Peasants: Large numbers, often linking local grievances (Awadh peasant movement, Eka movement).
  • Workers: Numerous strikes.
  • Middle Class: Active participation, professionals and traders.
  • Merchants: Refused to indent foreign goods.
  • Significant Muslim Participation: Due to Khilafat issue, leading to remarkable Hindu-Muslim unity.

Government Repression:

  • Severe repression, thousands arrested (Ali Brothers in 1921).
  • Volunteer corps declared illegal.
  • Lathi charges and firing common.

Chauri Chaura Incident (Gorakhpur, UP, 5 February 1922):

  • Peaceful procession fired upon by police.
  • Enraged mob attacked and burnt police station, killing 22 policemen.

Withdrawal of NCM by Gandhi (Bardoli Resolution, February 1922):

  • Deeply pained by violence, Gandhi felt people were not ready for sustained non-violent struggle.
  • Abruptly called off NCM.

Reactions to Withdrawal:

  • Criticism and disappointment from many leaders (C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose).
  • Gandhi arrested in March 1922, sentenced to 6 years (released 1924).

Significance & Achievements of NCM

  • First truly nationwide mass movement: Transformed struggle from elite to mass-based.
  • Broadened social base of Congress: Reached villages and towns.
  • Forged Hindu-Muslim unity (temporary): Due to Khilafat.
  • Instilled self-confidence and fearlessness: Shed fear of colonial authority.
  • Popularized Swadeshi and Khadi: Khadi became "livery of freedom."
  • Weakened British prestige: Demonstrated depth of Indian discontent.

End of Khilafat Movement

Gradually lost relevance after Mustafa Kemal Pasha abolished the Caliphate in Turkey in March 1924, making the central demand redundant.

Timeline of Events: Quick Summary

Event/Movement Year(s) Key Features/Causes Leadership/Key Figures Significance/Outcome
Impact of WWI 1914-1918 Economic hardship, broken promises of self-rule (Montagu Declaration 1917), increased nationalist aspirations. - Created fertile ground for mass agitation.
Rowlatt Act March 1919 Based on Rowlatt Committee. Arbitrary arrest, detention without trial ("No Dalil, No Vakil, No Appeal"). Widespread Indian opposition ("Black Act"). Sir Sidney Rowlatt Provoked widespread anger and Gandhi's first all-India Satyagraha.
Rowlatt Satyagraha April 1919 Gandhi's call for all-India hartal (April 6), Satyagraha Sabha. Protests, strikes, demonstrations. Some violence. Mahatma Gandhi First nationwide mass protest by Gandhi. Demonstrated potential of Satyagraha on all-India scale.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre Apr 13, 1919 Peaceful gathering at Jallianwala Bagh (Amritsar) fired upon by General Dyer. Hundreds killed. Brutal repression in Punjab. National outrage, Tagore renounced knighthood. Hunter Committee "whitewash." General Dyer, Dr. Kitchlew, Dr. Satyapal, Rabindranath Tagore Exposed brutality of British rule, shattered faith in British justice, became a turning point in radicalizing nationalist sentiment.
Khilafat Movement 1919-1924 Fears about dismemberment of Ottoman Empire & abolition of Caliphate post-WWI. Aimed to pressure Britain to protect Caliph's authority. All India Khilafat Committee. Ali Brothers (Shaukat & Muhammad Ali), Maulana Azad, Hasrat Mohani, Dr. M.A. Ansari Provided platform for Hindu-Muslim unity when Gandhi supported it. Merged with Non-Cooperation Movement. Became irrelevant after abolition of Caliphate in Turkey (1924).
Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) Aug 1920 – Feb 1922 Issues: Punjab wrongs, Khilafat wrongs, Swaraj. Congress Adoption: Calcutta (Sep 1920), Nagpur (Dec 1920). Programme: Boycott (schools, courts, councils, foreign goods, titles), Swadeshi (national schools, Khadi, Panchayats). Mass Participation: Students, women, peasants, workers, Muslims. Repression: Mass arrests. Withdrawal: Chauri Chaura incident (Feb 1922). Mahatma Gandhi, Ali Brothers, C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Patel First truly nationwide mass movement. Transformed Congress into mass organization. Remarkable Hindu-Muslim unity (temporary). Instilled fearlessness. Popularized Swadeshi/Khadi. Despite withdrawal, significantly advanced freedom struggle.

Key Takeaways for Examinations

Prelims-ready Notes

  • Impact of WWI: Economic hardship, broken promises, increased nationalism.
  • Montagu Declaration (1917): Promised "gradual development of self-governing institutions."
  • Rowlatt Act (March 1919): Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act. "No Dalil, No Vakil, No Appeal."
  • Rowlatt Satyagraha (April 1919): Gandhi's first all-India mass protest. Hartal on April 6.
  • Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: Amritsar, April 13, 1919. General Dyer. Against arrest of Kitchlew & Satyapal. Tagore renounced knighthood. Hunter Committee.
  • Khilafat Movement (1919-1924): Issue: Fate of Ottoman Caliphate. Leaders: Ali Brothers, Maulana Azad. Gandhi supported it.
  • Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) (1920-1922):
    • Issues: Punjab wrongs, Khilafat wrongs, Swaraj.
    • Congress Sessions: Calcutta (Sep 1920), Nagpur (Dec 1920 – NCM ratified, Congress constitution changed).
    • Programme: Boycott (schools, courts, councils, foreign goods, titles); Swadeshi (national schools, Khadi, Charkha, Panchayats).
    • Tilak Swaraj Fund: Over Rs. 1 crore.
    • Chauri Chaura Incident: Feb 5, 1922 – mob violence, police killed.
    • Withdrawal: Bardoli Resolution (Feb 1922) by Gandhi.
    • Gandhi's Arrest: March 1922.
  • End of Khilafat: Caliphate abolished by Mustafa Kemal Pasha (1924).

Mains-ready Analytical Notes

  • WWI as a Catalyst: Altered political landscape, created disillusionment and readiness for mass action.
  • Rowlatt Act & Jallianwala Bagh: Point of No Return: Shattered faith in British justice, pushed Gandhi towards mass struggle.
  • Khilafat Movement: Strategic Alliance: Gandhi's masterstroke for Hindu-Muslim unity; brought Muslims into mainstream; limitations of religious basis, long-term communal identities.
  • NCM: Paradigm Shift:
    • Mass Character: First truly all-India mass movement, diverse participation.
    • New Techniques: Popularized Gandhian Satyagraha methods.
    • Organizational Transformation: Congress became democratic, mass-based.
    • Psychological Impact: Instilled fearlessness, self-confidence.
  • Chauri Chaura & Ethics of Non-Violence: Gandhi's controversial withdrawal underscored commitment to Ahimsa; highlighted ethical dimensions of leadership.
  • Contemporary Relevance: Mass mobilization techniques still relevant; Hindu-Muslim unity debates; non-violence ethics; mass pressure for reform.

Current Affairs & Relevance

The centenary of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (2019) led to renewed discussions on colonial atrocities and historical memory. Debates on civil liberties and sedition laws sometimes recall the repressive features of the Rowlatt Act. The NCM's emphasis on national education and indigenous knowledge echoes in contemporary discussions on decolonizing education (e.g., aspects of NEP 2020).

UPSC Previous Year Questions

Prelims MCQs:

  • UPSC Prelims 2015: Rowlatt Satyagraha (Sedition Committee, Home Rule League, Simon Commission).
  • UPSC Prelims 2012: Khilafat Movement (reason for protest).
  • UPSC Prelims 2019: Non-Cooperation Movement (causes, program, withdrawal).

Mains Questions:

  • UPSC Mains 2017: The Rowlatt Act was perceived by Indians as a betrayal by the British. Discuss its salient features and the reaction of the people to it.
  • UPSC Mains 2013: "The Non-Cooperation Movement and the Khilafat Agitation were expressions of a common political will to challenge British authority." Critically examine.
  • UPSC Mains 2020: Assess the role of Mahatma Gandhi in the Indian freedom struggle.

Practice Questions

Original MCQs for Prelims

1. The primary reason for Mahatma Gandhi's decision to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement in February 1922 was:

  • (a) The British government's agreement to grant significant constitutional reforms.
  • (b) The arrest of most prominent Congress leaders, leading to a leadership vacuum.
  • (c) The Chauri Chaura incident, where a mob turned violent and killed policemen.
  • (d) The collapse of the Khilafat Movement due to events in Turkey.
Show Answer & Explanation

Answer: (c)

Explanation: Mahatma Gandhi, a staunch believer in non-violence, was deeply disturbed by the violence at Chauri Chaura and felt that the people were not yet ready for a purely non-violent struggle, leading him to withdraw the NCM.

2. Which of the following was NOT a component of the Non-Cooperation Movement's programme?

  • (a) Boycott of government schools, colleges, and law courts.
  • (b) Promotion of Khadi and hand-spinning.
  • (c) Participation in legislative council elections held under the Government of India Act, 1919.
  • (d) Surrender of titles and honorary offices conferred by the British.
Show Answer & Explanation

Answer: (c)

Explanation: A key component of the Non-Cooperation Movement was the boycott of legislative council elections held under the Government of India Act, 1919. Participation in these elections was contrary to the spirit of non-cooperation with British institutions.

Original Descriptive Questions for Mains

1. "The Jallianwala Bagh massacre was a watershed moment that irrevocably altered the course of the Indian freedom struggle." Discuss the circumstances leading to the massacre and analyze its profound impact on Indian nationalism.

Show Key Points/Structure
  • Introduction: Briefly introduce Jallianwala Bagh as a tragic turning point.
  • Circumstances Leading: Post-WWI atmosphere; Rowlatt Act and Gandhi's Satyagraha; tense situation in Punjab, arrests, martial law.
  • The Event Itself: Peaceful Baisakhi gathering, Dyer's orders, brutality.
  • Profound Impact: Loss of faith in British justice; intensification of anti-British sentiment; strengthening Gandhi's resolve; fostering national unity (Tagore); paved way for NCM; symbol of colonial brutality.
  • Conclusion: Not just an incident, but a defining moment that hardened resolve and propelled mass struggle.

2. Evaluate the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22) as the first truly all-India mass movement. What were its major achievements and shortcomings?

Show Key Points/Structure
  • Introduction: Define NCM as first all-India mass movement.
  • Elements of Mass Movement: Wide geographical spread; diverse social participation (students, women, peasants, workers, Muslims); new methods of mobilization (boycott, Swadeshi); organizational strength (revamped Congress structure).
  • Major Achievements: Broadened nationalism's social base; instilled fearlessness; forged temporary Hindu-Muslim unity; popularized Swadeshi/national education; shook British administration.
  • Shortcomings: Abrupt withdrawal (Chauri Chaura); failure to achieve "Swaraj within a year"; limited peasant class issue mobilization; religious basis of Khilafat had long-term communal implications; uneven intensity.
  • Conclusion: Despite premature withdrawal, NCM fundamentally transformed freedom struggle, leaving an enduring legacy of mass participation.