Introduction to British Imperialism
Following their decisive victories in Bengal (Plassey 1757, Buxar 1764) and the acquisition of Diwani rights in 1765, the British East India Company rapidly transformed into the paramount power in India. This phase (c. 1765-1857) was characterized by aggressive territorial expansion, driven by commercial interests, strategic imperatives, and the constant need for revenue to finance their growing military.
The Company systematically engaged in a series of major wars against the remaining formidable Indian powers – Mysore, the Marathas, and the Sikhs – ultimately leading to their defeat and annexation. Alongside these major conflicts, various smaller states were absorbed through diverse policies (Subsidiary Alliances, Doctrine of Lapse, annexation on grounds of misgovernance), solidifying British control over vast swathes of the subcontinent.
This period culminated in the establishment of direct British administrative control over nearly all of India, setting the stage for the consolidation of the British Raj.
Anglo-Mysore Wars: The Southern Challenge
The rise of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan transformed Mysore into a formidable military and economic power in South India, posing the most significant challenge to British expansion there.
- British Imperial Ambition: Desire to expand influence and control lucrative trade routes of South India, especially the Malabar Coast (spices, access to sea).
- Mysore's Strength: Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan's modern military and economic policies were perceived as a significant threat to British and allied interests.
- Strategic Location: Mysore's geographical position was crucial for British power projection in the South.
- Alliances: British attempts to isolate Mysore by forming alliances with Marathas and Nizam of Hyderabad, and Mysore's counter-alliances with the French.
First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-1769)
- Parties: Hyder Ali vs. EIC, Nizam, Marathas (allies shifted).
- Course: Hyder Ali, through shrewd diplomacy, first detached the Nizam and then the Marathas. He launched a daring attack on the Carnatic, reaching the gates of Madras.
- Outcome: Hyder Ali's success led to the Treaty of Madras (1769), based on mutual restitution of conquests and a defensive alliance against common enemies. British prestige was dented.
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784)
- Parties: Hyder Ali (later Tipu Sultan) vs. EIC.
- Context: Coincided with the American War of Independence (1775-1783) and Anglo-French hostilities. French support to Mysore was a factor.
- Course: Hyder Ali formed a grand alliance with the Marathas and the Nizam against the British. The British captured the French port of Mahé. Battle of Porto Novo (1781): Hyder Ali defeated by Sir Eyre Coote. Hyder Ali died in 1782, and Tipu Sultan continued.
- Outcome: Ended with the Treaty of Mangalore (1784), largely a mutual restitution of territories and prisoners. The war was inconclusive.
Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792)
- Parties: Tipu Sultan vs. EIC, Nizam, Marathas (Triple Alliance).
- Context: Tipu's attack on Travancore (a British ally) provided the casus belli.
- Course: Lord Cornwallis led British forces. Tipu initially put up strong resistance but was eventually outnumbered.
- Outcome: Ended with the humiliating Treaty of Seringapatam (1792). Tipu ceded half his territory, paid a huge war indemnity (3.3 crore rupees), and his two sons were taken as hostages. This severely crippled Mysore's power.
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)
- Parties: Tipu Sultan vs. EIC (under Lord Wellesley), Nizam.
- Context: Lord Wellesley sought to establish British paramountcy. Tipu's refusal of Subsidiary Alliance and attempts to seek foreign alliances (France, Napoleon).
- Course: British launched a swift and decisive campaign, storming Tipu's capital Seringapatam.
- Outcome: Defeat and death of Tipu Sultan (1799) defending Seringapatam. Mysore was partitioned: British gained significant areas, Nizam received parts. The Wodeyar dynasty was restored to a smaller core of Mysore under a Subsidiary Alliance.
Consequences:
The elimination of Tipu Sultan removed the last formidable independent power in South India, consolidating British control over the wealthy South and eliminating a key potential ally of the French.
Anglo-Maratha Wars: The Central Power Struggle
The Maratha Confederacy, despite its internal divisions, remained the strongest indigenous power in central and western India, leading to three major conflicts with the British.
- British Ambition: Desire to expand control over central India and eliminate the strongest indigenous rival to paramountcy.
- Maratha Power: The Marathas, though weakened, still commanded a vast territory and challenged British claims.
- Internal Maratha Disputes: British consistently exploited succession disputes within the Peshwa's family and rivalries among the Maratha chiefs (Scindias, Holkars, Bhonsles, Gaekwads).
- Subsidiary Alliance: British policy of imposing subsidiary alliances was a major cause of conflict, as Marathas resisted it.
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782)
- Context: Triggered by the Maratha succession struggle (Madhavrao Narayan vs. Raghunath Rao), British supported Raghunath Rao under Treaty of Surat (1775).
- Course: Battle of Wadgaon (1779): British forces suffered a humiliating defeat.
- Outcome: Treaty of Salbai (1782). Largely restored status quo ante bellum. Recognition of Madhavrao Narayan as Peshwa. Salsette Island ceded to British. Raghunath Rao pensioned off. Marathas retained independence, giving them a 20-year respite.
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805)
- Context: Led by Lord Wellesley. Exacerbated internal Maratha rivalries (Holkar vs. Scindia & Peshwa).
- Treaty of Bassein (1802): Peshwa Baji Rao II, defeated by Holkar, fled and signed a Subsidiary Alliance with the British, viewed as a sell-out by other chiefs.
- Course: Other Maratha chiefs (Scindia, Bhonsle, Holkar) resisted Treaty of Bassein, fought separately. British defeated Scindia (Assaye, Laswari), Bhonsle (Argaon).
- Outcome: Maratha chiefs individually defeated and forced to sign subsidiary alliances (e.g., Treaty of Deogaon, Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon). Huge territorial losses.
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1819)
- Context: Led by Lord Hastings, aiming for undisputed British paramountcy. Triggered by Pindari War. Peshwa Baji Rao II's attempt to throw off British yoke.
- Course: British decisively defeated Peshwa, Holkar, Bhonsle in battles (Khirki, Mahidpur, Sitabuldi).
- Outcome: Abolition of Peshwaship: Peshwa Baji Rao II pensioned off to Bithur. Vast Maratha territories annexed, becoming part of Bombay Presidency. Other Maratha states became subsidiary states, losing independence completely.
Consequences:
This war led to the complete dissolution of the Maratha Confederacy and the final subjugation of the Maratha power, establishing undisputed British paramountcy over almost all of India.
Anglo-Sikh Wars: The Lion of Punjab's Legacy
The powerful Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh remained a strong independent state in North-West India. After his death, internal conflicts and British expansionism led to two wars.
- Political Instability in Punjab after Ranjit Singh's death (1839): Power vacuum, succession disputes, rise of powerful factions (Jat Sikhs, Dogra Rajputs).
- Khalsa army's assertiveness: The formidable Khalsa army became increasingly assertive and involved in court intrigues, posing a challenge to weak central authority.
- General Causes: British imperial ambition to expand into prosperous Punjab and secure the North-West Frontier, coupled with the internal instability of the Sikh kingdom.
First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846)
- Context: British military build-up on the Sutlej border; Sikh army crossing the Sutlej (seen as British provocation).
- Course: Series of bloody battles: Mudki, Ferozeshah, Aliwal, and decisive Battle of Sobraon. Sikhs defeated due to betrayal and lack of unified command.
- Treaty of Lahore (1846): Jalandhar Doab annexed by British. Kashmir sold to Gulab Singh (Dogra ruler) for 75 lakh rupees. Sikh army reduced, huge war indemnity. British Resident stationed at Lahore.
- Treaty of Bhairowal (1846): British Resident gained full authority over Sikh affairs, making Punjab a protectorate.
Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849)
- Context: Led by Lord Dalhousie, an aggressive annexationist.
- Immediate Trigger: Revolt of Mulraj at Multan against British Resident, sparking wider Sikh revolt (Chattar Singh Attariwalla).
- Course: Battles of Ramnagar, Chillianwala (costly British victory), and decisive Battle of Gujarat ('Battle of Guns').
- Outcome: Annexation of Punjab (1849): Lord Dalhousie annexed Punjab completely. Maharaja Duleep Singh pensioned off and sent to England. The Koh-i-Noor diamond was taken by the British Crown.
Consequences:
The annexation of Punjab completed the British conquest of India and secured the strategically important North-West Frontier.
Other Key Annexations & Wars
Annexation of Sindh (1843)
- Strategic Importance: Control over the Indus River, important for trade and North-West Frontier security ("Great Game").
- British Intrigue: Gradual assertion of influence through treaties with Amirs of Sindh.
- Role of Charles Napier: Sent by Lord Ellenborough, provoked Amirs and defeated them decisively despite no clear casus belli.
- "Peccavi" Remark: Napier famously (and perhaps apocryphally) sent "I have sinned" in Latin, implying dubious morality.
- Outcome: Annexed in 1843, widely criticized as unjust imperialism.
Annexation of Awadh (1856)
- Awadh as Buffer: After Battle of Buxar, became subsidiary ally and buffer. British continuously interfered and increased demands.
- Subsidiary Alliance (1801): Lord Wellesley imposed full SA, crippling Awadh's finances and making it dependent.
- Annexation by Dalhousie: Annexed in 1856 on grounds of "misgovernance" (reports by Outram, Sleeman). A unilateral act, seen as breach of trust.
- Impact on Sepoys: Deeply angered ruling family, talukdars, and populace. A large proportion of Bengal Army sepoys were from Awadh, their families affected by new revenue settlement, significantly contributing to 1857 Revolt.
Anglo-Burmese Wars
- First (1824-1826): Caused by Burmese expansion into Assam. Ended with Treaty of Yandabo (1826), ceding Assam, Arakan, Tenasserim.
- Second (1852): Caused by British commercial interests. Led to annexation of Pegu (Lower Burma) by Lord Dalhousie, gaining coastline and trade control.
- Third (1885): Caused by British fears of French influence and commercial disputes. Led to annexation of Upper Burma, completing British control.
Anglo-Nepalese War (1814-1816)
- Causes: Territorial disputes between British (Terai, Himalayan foothills) and expanding Gurkha kingdom.
- Treaty of Sugauli (1816): Nepal ceded significant territories (Garhwal, Kumaon - became British hill stations), and parts of Terai. British Resident stationed in Kathmandu. Nepal remained independent but foreign policy under British influence.
- Gurkha Recruitment: British began recruiting Gurkhas into their army, renowned for bravery and loyalty.
Anglo-Afghan Wars: The Great Game
- Context of "Great Game": British fears of Russian expansion towards India's North-West Frontier, leading to geopolitical rivalry.
- First (1839-1842): Lord Auckland's attempt to replace Dost Muhammad with Shah Shuja ("Forward Policy"). Disastrous British retreat from Kabul, almost entire force annihilated. Humiliating defeat, blow to British prestige.
- Policy of "Masterly Inactivity": Adopted by John Lawrence after the disaster, advocating non-interference.
- Second (1878-1880): Lord Lytton revived "Forward Policy" due to Russian influence. Treaty of Gandamak (1879), giving British control over Afghanistan's foreign policy.
- Durand Line Agreement (1893): Demarcated border between Afghanistan and British India.
Key Milestones of Imperial Expansion (1765-1857)
1765: Acquisition of Diwani Rights
East India Company gained revenue collection rights for Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, marking a turning point in their political power.
1769: Treaty of Madras
Ended the First Anglo-Mysore War, a rare setback for the British against Hyder Ali.
1782: Treaty of Salbai
Concluded the First Anglo-Maratha War, giving Marathas a valuable 20-year period of relative peace with the British.
1792: Treaty of Seringapatam
Humiliating defeat for Tipu Sultan in the Third Anglo-Mysore War, ceding half his territory.
1799: Death of Tipu Sultan & Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
Tipu Sultan killed defending Seringapatam, leading to Mysore's effective subjugation under Subsidiary Alliance.
1801: Subsidiary Alliance Imposed on Awadh
Awadh lost significant sovereignty under Lord Wellesley's policy, setting a precedent for other states.
1802: Treaty of Bassein
Peshwa Baji Rao II accepted Subsidiary Alliance, provoking the Second Anglo-Maratha War and weakening the Confederacy.
1818-1819: Dissolution of Maratha Confederacy
Third Anglo-Maratha War ends, abolishing Peshwaship and establishing complete British paramountcy over Central India.
1843: Annexation of Sindh
Strategic but controversial annexation by Lord Ellenborough, executed by Charles Napier.
1849: Annexation of Punjab
After the Second Anglo-Sikh War, Lord Dalhousie annexed the last major independent kingdom, completing British conquest.
1856: Annexation of Awadh
On grounds of "misgovernance," a unilateral act that significantly fueled the discontent leading to the 1857 Revolt.
Summary Table: Major British Annexations/Conquests
| Region / War | Year(s) | Key Personalities / Treaties | Method / Pretext | Outcome / Significance |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mysore | 1767-1799 | Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan, Wellesley | Wars | Elimination of strong Southern rival; part annexed, rest subsidiary. |
| Maratha Confederacy | 1775-1819 | Peshwas, Scindia, Holkar, Wellesley, Hastings | Wars, Subsidiary Alliances | End of Maratha power; large territories annexed; Peshwaship abolished. |
| Punjab | 1845-1849 | Ranjit Singh, Dalhousie | Wars | Complete annexation, securing NW Frontier. |
| Sindh | 1843 | Lord Ellenborough, Charles Napier | Direct annexation (strategic) | Control of Indus trade route; "Peccavi" remarked. |
| Awadh | 1856 | Lord Dalhousie | "Misgovernance" (Annexationist) | Major cause of 1857 Revolt. |
| Assam | 1824-1826 | Lord Amherst, Treaty of Yandabo | First Anglo-Burmese War | Control over North-East. |
| Burma (parts) | 1824-26, 1852, 1885 | Lord Amherst, Lord Dalhousie | Anglo-Burmese Wars | Control over resources and strategic coastline. |
| Nepal | 1814-1816 | Lord Hastings, Treaty of Sugauli | Anglo-Nepalese (Gurkha) War | Cession of territories, Gurkha recruitment. |
| Afghanistan | 1839-1842 | Lord Auckland | First Anglo-Afghan War (failure) | Humiliating defeat, exposed British vulnerability ("Great Game"). |
Prelims-ready Notes: Quick Facts for UPSC
Anglo-Mysore Wars
- 4 Wars: Key figures Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan.
- Tipu killed in 4th war (1799) at Seringapatam.
Anglo-Maratha Wars
- 3 Wars: 1st ended with Treaty of Salbai (1782) (status quo).
- 2nd began with Treaty of Bassein (1802) (Peshwa accepted SA).
- 3rd war (1817-19) led to abolition of Peshwaship by Lord Hastings.
Anglo-Sikh Wars
- 2 Wars: After Ranjit Singh's death (1839).
- 1st war (1845-46) Treaty of Lahore.
- 2nd war (1848-49) Punjab annexed (1849) by Lord Dalhousie.
Key Policies
- Subsidiary Alliance: Lord Wellesley. First state: Nizam of Hyderabad (1798).
- Doctrine of Lapse: Lord Dalhousie. First state: Satara (1848).
Specific Annexations
- Sindh (1843): Lord Ellenborough, Charles Napier ("Peccavi"). Unjust.
- Awadh (1856): Lord Dalhousie on "misgovernance." Major cause of 1857 Revolt.
Frontier Wars
- Anglo-Burmese Wars: Led to annexation of Assam (1826, Treaty of Yandabo), parts/whole of Burma.
- Anglo-Nepalese War (1814-16): Treaty of Sugauli (1816), Gurkhas recruited.
- First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-42): Disastrous British defeat, "Great Game."
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
Major Debates/Discussions
- Imperialism of Free Trade vs. Pre-Industrial Imperialism: Expansion before 1813 (mercantile) vs. post-1813 (Industrial Revolution – raw materials, markets, investment). "Great Game" highlights geopolitical motives.
- Deliberate Policy vs. Accidental Empire: Systematic nature of wars, alliances (Subsidiary Alliances), and annexations (Doctrine of Lapse, Misgovernance) from Wellesley onwards points towards deliberate, aggressive imperial policy.
- Morality of Annexations: Policies like Sindh ("peccavi") and Awadh ("misgovernance") were controversial even among the British, questioning the ethical basis of colonial expansion.
Historical/Long-term Trends
- Establishment of Paramountcy: Complete transition from fragmented Indian polity to undisputed British paramountcy.
- Military Dominance: Anglo-Indian army became the most dominant force; Indian states failing to modernize were defeated.
- Economic Consequences: Costly wars funded by conquered territories, intensifying drain of wealth from India.
- Administrative Consolidation: Annexation led to direct British administration, forming the colonial state apparatus.
- Disempowerment of Indian Elites: Traditional ruling elites replaced or reduced to dependent princely states.
Contemporary Relevance/Impact
- Geopolitical Strategy: "Great Game" has modern parallels in regional power struggles, buffer zones, border security.
- Annexation Policies & Sovereignty: Use of "misgovernance" highlights lessons about power politics and threats to sovereignty.
- Identity Formation: Dismantling of Indian powers fostered collective identity and shared grievance leading to nationalism.
- Frontier Management: British efforts shaped current geopolitical realities and border issues with neighbors.
- Military Legacy: Contributions and grievances of Indian soldiers to British Indian Army have complex legacy.
UPSC Previous Year Questions
Prelims MCQs
1. UPSC CSE Prelims 2017: Q. Which of the following statements correctly explains the impact of the Third Battle of Panipat on Indian politics?
- The Marathas emerged victorious and established their empire in North India.
- Ahmad Shah Abdali crushed the Marathas and became the paramount power in North India.
- The battle led to the consolidation of the British East India Company's power in Bengal.
- The battle significantly weakened the Maratha power and created a power vacuum, paving the way for the rise of the British. (Ans. d)
2. UPSC CSE Prelims 2018: Q. The 'Subsidiary Alliance' was a system devised by Lord Wellesley to:
- Secure the native states from foreign invasions.
- Maintain friendly relations with the native states.
- Expand British influence and control over native states.
- Provide military assistance to native states in return for payment.
Select the correct option using the code given below:
- 1 and 2 only
- 3 and 4 only (Ans. b)
- 1, 2 and 3 only
- All of the above
3. UPSC CSE Prelims 2021: Q. In the first quarter of the 19th century, the exports of cotton piece goods from India declined. Which of the following were the reasons for this decline?
- Export duties imposed by the British government on Indian cotton textiles.
- Competitive advantage of British manufacturers, especially with the use of machines.
- Loss of traditional markets in Europe due to political upheavals.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
- 1 and 2 only
- 2 and 3 only
- 1 and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3 (Ans. d)
Mains Questions
1. UPSC CSE Mains 2013: General Studies Paper I
Q. Discuss the various challenges that the Mughal Empire faced in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.
Hint: Contextualize how the internal decay of the Mughals created a vacuum that both Indian and later British powers filled, leading to the series of wars of conquest.
2. UPSC CSE Mains 2019: General Studies Paper I
Q. Examine the policies of Lord Dalhousie and their repercussions on the Indian states.
Hint: Focus on Doctrine of Lapse, annexation on Misgovernance (Awadh), conquests (Punjab), and their repercussions like resentment and contribution to 1857 Revolt.
3. UPSC CSE Mains 2020: General Studies Paper I
Q. Discuss the factors that led to the decline of the Mughal Empire.
Hint: Include aggressive expansion of British influence and their systematic conquest of formidable Indian powers as a major external factor finalizing the collapse.