Introduction & Context
The 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed significant socio-religious reform movements across India, responding to internal decay, colonial influence, and the proselytizing efforts of Christian missionaries and other religious groups. Sikhism, too, underwent a period of introspection and revitalization through various reform movements.
These movements aimed to restore the purity of Sikh tenets, eradicate superstitious practices, bring about social reforms, assert a distinct Sikh identity, and, in some cases, develop a political dimension against colonial rule. They played a crucial role in consolidating Sikh identity and establishing modern Sikh institutions.
Key Reform Movements
4.5.1: Nirankari Movement (Early 19th Century)
Founder: Baba Dayal Das (1783-1855)
Period: Began in Rawalpindi, Punjab, around the 1840s.
Significance: One of the earliest reform movements within Sikhism, paving the way for later, more assertive movements. Focused primarily on religious purification rather than political assertion.
- Emphasis on Nirankar (Formless God): Advocated the worship of God as 'Nirankar' (formless, transcendent), rejecting idol worship and elaborate rituals. This was a direct return to the fundamental teachings of Guru Nanak Dev.
- Return to Gurus' Teachings: Stressed adherence to the teachings of the Sikh Gurus as enshrined in the Guru Granth Sahib.
- Simpler Social Customs: Advocated for simpler, more authentic Sikh social customs and ceremonies, particularly for births, deaths, and marriages, rejecting Hindu rituals that had crept into Sikh practices. They introduced a simple, Anand marriage ceremony.
- Rejection of Ritualism: Opposed Brahmanical rituals, elaborate ceremonies, and caste distinctions, emphasizing an egalitarian approach within the Sikh fold.
- Moral & Ethical Conduct: Promoted high moral standards, truthfulness, and simple living.
Source: Spectrum's "A Brief History of Modern India", IGNOU History Course Material.
4.5.2: Namdhari Movement / Kuka Movement (Mid to late 19th Century)
Founder: Baba Ram Singh (1816-1885). Initially founded by Balak Singh (1797-1862). Ram Singh became the second Guru and prominent leader.
Period: Gained prominence from the 1850s onwards.
Religious Reforms:
- Rejected elaborate rituals, idol worship, and caste distinctions, akin to Nirankaris.
- Emphasized the importance of living Gurus (a deviation from mainstream Sikhism which only recognized Guru Granth Sahib as the eternal Guru after Guru Gobind Singh).
- Advocated simple living, abstinence from meat, alcohol, and drugs.
- Known for their distinctive white clothes and simple turbans.
- Chanting of 'Kuk' (a loud shriek or cry) during religious ecstasy, giving them the name 'Kukas'.
Social Reforms:
- Inter-caste Marriage: Promoted inter-caste marriages to break down social barriers.
- Opposed Child Marriage & Dowry: Actively campaigned against prevalent social evils like child marriage and the dowry system.
- Women's Equality: Encouraged widow remarriage and education for women.
Source: NCERT Class XII, Spectrum, IGNOU.
- Anti-British Stance: Unlike the Nirankaris, the Namdharis developed a strong political dimension, actively opposing British rule.
- Swadeshi & Boycott: Advocated for the boycott of British goods, government services, courts, and educational institutions. This was an early manifestation of the Swadeshi movement, predating the more famous Swadeshi movement of 1905. Promoted indigenous products and systems (e.g., self-sufficient village industries, panchayat justice system).
- Cow Protection: Took a strong stand against cow slaughter, which led to clashes with Muslim butchers, often supported by the British.
- Clashes with British: The movement's growing influence and anti-British activities led to confrontation. Notable incidents include:
- Malerkotla Incident (1872): Kukas attacked Malerkotla, leading to brutal suppression by the British. Over 60 Namdharis were blown from cannons without trial.
- Brutal Suppression: The British viewed the Namdharis as a serious threat. Baba Ram Singh was arrested and exiled to Rangoon (Burma) in 1872, where he died in 1885. The movement was largely crushed.
Source: Spectrum, NCERT Class XII, PIB archives.
Summary: Nirankari vs. Namdhari Movements
| Feature | Nirankari Movement (Early 19th C) | Namdhari Movement (Mid-Late 19th C) |
|---|---|---|
| Founder | Baba Dayal Das | Baba Ram Singh (successor to Balak Singh) |
| Focus | Primarily Religious Purification | Religious & Social Reform, Political |
| God Concept | Nirankar (Formless) | Nirankar, but also Living Gurus |
| Rituals | Rejected Elaborate Rituals | Rejected Elaborate Rituals |
| Social | Simpler Customs | Inter-caste marriage, anti-child marriage/dowry, widow remarriage |
| Political | None explicit | Strong anti-British (Boycott, Swadeshi) |
| Suppression | N.A. (peaceful) | Brutally suppressed by British |
| Key Event | Anand Marriage | Malerkotla Incident (1872) |
4.5.3: Singh Sabha Movement (Late 19th - Early 20th Century)
Period: Began in 1873.
Context: Emerged in response to the decline of Sikhism, the proselytizing activities of Christian missionaries and the Arya Samaj (which sought to re-convert Sikhs to Hinduism), and the British attempts to define Sikh identity.
- Restore Purity of Sikhism: Countered the erosion of distinct Sikh identity and the assimilation into Hindu practices. Aimed to define Sikhism as a unique and separate religion.
- Counter Proselytizing Activities: Actively campaigned against the conversion of Sikhs to Christianity (e.g., conversion of Maharaja Duleep Singh) and defended Sikhism from the attacks of Arya Samaj leader Swami Dayanand Saraswati.
- Promote Education: Established schools and colleges to impart modern education alongside Sikh religious instruction. Khalsa College, Amritsar (1892): A landmark institution, symbolizing the movement's commitment to education and identity consolidation. It became a hub for Sikh intellectual activity.
- Develop Punjabi Language & Gurmukhi Script: Promoted the use of Punjabi language and Gurmukhi script as essential elements of Sikh identity. Undertook literary activities, publishing books, pamphlets, and newspapers (e.g., 'Khalsa Akhbar').
- Social Upliftment: Addressed social issues like female infanticide, dowry, and caste discrimination within Sikh society.
Source: Spectrum, IGNOU, Khalsa College official history.
- Amritsar Singh Sabha (1873): Established first, more orthodox in its approach.
- Lahore Singh Sabha (1879): More liberal and modern in its outlook.
- Chief Khalsa Diwan (1902): The two Sabhas merged to form the Chief Khalsa Diwan, which acted as a central representative body for the Sikhs, coordinating reform activities and representing Sikh interests. It played a crucial role in the socio-political awakening of Sikhs.
Source: Spectrum, IGNOU.
- Defined Sikh Identity: Successfully articulated and established a distinct Sikh identity, separate from Hinduism.
- Literary & Educational Renaissance: Led to a significant literary and educational awakening among Sikhs, fostering intellectual growth.
- Foundation for Future Movements: Provided the intellectual and organizational groundwork for the Akali Movement.
- Modern Institutions: Established modern educational and administrative institutions that served the community.
Source: Spectrum, academic journals on Sikh studies.
4.5.4: Akali Movement / Gurdwara Reform Movement (Early 1920s)
Period: Primarily 1920-1925.
Context: Emerged from the dissatisfaction with the management of historical Gurdwaras (Sikh shrines), which were often controlled by hereditary priests (Mahants) who had become corrupt, introduced non-Sikh practices, and were often supported by the British colonial administration. The Singh Sabha Movement had laid the groundwork for this awakening.
Aim:
- Liberate Gurdwaras: The primary aim was to free the control of historic Gurdwaras from corrupt, hereditary Mahants and bring them under the control of the Sikh community.
- Religious & Political Dimension: While primarily religious in its objective, it had significant political implications due to the Mahants' nexus with the British government, making it an anti-colonial struggle as well.
Methods:
- Non-violent Satyagraha: The Akalis adopted Mahatma Gandhi's non-violent methods of Satyagraha (passive resistance) to achieve their goals.
- Jathas: Organized groups of volunteers (Jathas) would march peacefully to Gurdwaras, demanding their transfer of control.
Source: Spectrum, NCERT Class XII, IGNOU.
Key Events:
- Nankana Sahib Massacre (1921): A turning point. A Jatha trying to take control of the Gurdwara at Nankana Sahib (birthplace of Guru Nanak) was brutally attacked by the Mahant's hired goons, resulting in hundreds of Sikh deaths. This incident galvanized Sikh public opinion and drew national attention, including support from Mahatma Gandhi.
- Guru ka Bagh Morcha (1922): Akali volunteers protested the Mahant's claim over land attached to Gurdwara Guru ka Bagh near Amritsar. The British police brutally beat the unarmed Akalis, who refused to retaliate. This display of non-violent courage earned widespread admiration and pressure on the British government.
Sikh Gurdwaras Act (1925) & Outcome:
- Victory for Akalis: The sustained non-violent struggle and the widespread support forced the British government to pass the Sikh Gurdwaras Act in 1925.
- SGPC (Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee): The Act brought all historical Gurdwaras in Punjab under the control of an elected body, the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC), making it the supreme religious authority for Sikhs.
- Linked with Nationalist Movement: The Akali Movement, through its adoption of non-violent methods and its indirect challenge to British authority (via the Mahants), became closely linked with the broader Indian nationalist movement. It demonstrated the power of non-violent civil disobedience.
- Formation of Shiromani Akali Dal: The Akalis also formed their political party, the Shiromani Akali Dal, which emerged as the principal political voice of Sikhs.
Source: Sikh Gurdwaras Act (1925), Govt. of India publications, Spectrum.
Major Sikh Reform Movements: At a Glance
| Movement | Period | Founder/Leader | Key Aim(s) | Methods/Key Events | Outcome/Significance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nirankari | Early 19th C | Baba Dayal Das | Return to fundamental Sikh tenets, simple living | Peaceful advocacy, Anand Marriage | Earliest reform, focus on religious purification |
| Namdhari/Kuka | Mid-Late 19th C | Baba Ram Singh | Religious purification, social reform, anti-British | Boycott, Swadeshi, Malerkotla Incident | Brutally suppressed, early manifestation of Swadeshi |
| Singh Sabha | Late 19th-Early 20th C | Giani Gian Singh, etc. | Define Sikh identity, counter conversions, promote education & Punjabi | Establishment of Khalsa College, publications | Consolidated Sikh identity, educational renaissance |
| Akali/Gurdwara Reform | Early 1920s | Various Akali leaders | Liberate Gurdwaras from corrupt Mahants | Non-violent Satyagraha, Nankana Sahib, Guru ka Bagh | Sikh Gurdwaras Act (1925), SGPC established, linked with Nationalism |
Study Notes & Analysis
Prelims-ready Notes
- Nirankari: Baba Dayal Das, Rawalpindi, Nirankar worship, simple customs, Anand marriage.
- Namdhari (Kuka): Baba Ram Singh, Balak Singh, anti-British (Swadeshi, boycott), cow protection, Malerkotla Incident (1872), exile of Ram Singh.
- Singh Sabha: 1873, Amritsar & Lahore Sabhas, Chief Khalsa Diwan (1902), Khalsa College Amritsar (1892), counter Christian missionaries & Arya Samaj, Gurmukhi promotion.
- Akali (Gurdwara Reform): 1920-1925, Mahants, non-violent Satyagraha, Jathas, Nankana Sahib (1921), Guru ka Bagh (1922), Sikh Gurdwaras Act (1925), SGPC.
- Key Figure-Movement Match: Baba Dayal Das (Nirankari), Baba Ram Singh (Namdhari), Chief Khalsa Diwan (Singh Sabha), SGPC (Akali Movement).
- Chronology: Nirankari → Namdhari → Singh Sabha → Akali.
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
- Internal vs. External Drivers: Complex interplay of internal decay and external threats (missionaries, Arya Samaj, British interference).
- British Role: Suspicion, suppression (Namdharis), eventual concession/co-option (Akalis). Mahants' alignment highlighted colonial indirect control.
- Revivalism vs. Modernization: While seeking purity (revivalism), movements like Singh Sabha embraced modern methods (education, print media), leading to community modernization.
Continuity:
- Preservation and purification of Sikh identity, combating external threats, addressing internal shortcomings.
- Emphasis on Gurus' teachings and rejection of elaborate rituals.
Change:
- Shift from Religious to Politico-Religious: From purely religious (Nirankaris) to anti-colonial political dimension (Namdharis), then identity & socio-religious (Singh Sabha), culminating in explicit religious and political aims (Akali).
- Organizational Sophistication: Evolved from individual initiatives to organized sects, then widespread community-based movements with central bodies (Chief Khalsa Diwan, SGPC).
- Engagement with Colonial Rule: From largely apolitical or suppressed to strategic confrontation and negotiation, leading to institutional reforms.
- Consolidation of Sikh Identity: Instrumental in defining a distinct Sikh identity, preventing absorption into Hinduism.
- Socio-Religious Reforms: Significant reforms promoting equality, female empowerment, discouraging regressive practices.
- Establishment of SGPC: Created a powerful, autonomous Sikh religious and administrative body, pivotal globally.
- Sikh Contribution to Nationalism: Akali's non-violent methods inspired broader nationalist struggle.
- Continued Debates: Debates persist regarding SGPC's autonomy, political role, and internal management, highlighting long-term impact.
Contemporary & Ongoing Impact
- SGPC's Ongoing Role: Remains the primary body managing historical Gurdwaras. News often covers SGPC elections, its stance on political issues concerning Sikhs, and management of religious affairs and educational institutions (e.g., leadership dynamics, Kartarpur Corridor management).
- Sikh Diaspora's Engagement: Global Sikh diaspora often looks to SGPC for religious guidance, highlighting the continued influence of the institutional structure established by the Akali movement.
- Heritage Preservation: Ongoing emphasis on preserving Sikh heritage sites, many now under SGPC management, with periodic news on restoration projects.
- Langar as UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage? (Potential future development): Discussions or calls for 'Langar' to be recognized by UNESCO, connecting to egalitarian and service principles promoted by reform movements.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
1. UPSC CSE 2012: Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Namdhari Movement?
- It was founded by Baba Dayal Das.
- It advocated for the boycott of British goods and government services.
- It promoted inter-caste marriages.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (c)
Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect; Baba Dayal Das founded the Nirankari Movement. Baba Ram Singh was the prominent leader of the Namdhari Movement. Statements 2 and 3 are correct as Namdharis were known for their anti-British stance (boycott) and social reforms like inter-caste marriage.
2. UPSC CSE 2015: The “Sikh Gurdwaras Act” was passed in which year?
(a) 1919 (b) 1922 (c) 1925 (d) 1928
Answer: (c)
Explanation: The Sikh Gurdwaras Act, which brought Gurdwaras under the control of the SGPC, was passed in 1925, following the success of the Akali Movement.
3. UPSC CSE 2017: Which of the following statements correctly describes the aim of the Akali Movement of the early 1920s?
(a) To liberate Sikh gurdwaras from the control of corrupt Mahants.
(b) To establish an independent Sikh state.
(c) To promote modern education among Sikhs.
(d) To counter the proselytizing activities of Christian missionaries.
Answer: (a)
Explanation: The primary and stated aim of the Akali Movement was Gurdwara reform, specifically freeing them from corrupt hereditary priests (Mahants) often backed by the British. Options (c) and (d) were aims of the Singh Sabha Movement. Option (b) was a later political demand not the core aim of the early 1920s Akali movement.
1. UPSC CSE 2018: Highlight the difference between the socio-religious reform movements of the 19th century in India and those of the 20th century. (Sikh reform movements fall within both periods).
Direction: For the 19th century, mention Nirankari, Namdhari, and early Singh Sabha as focused on internal purity, identity assertion, and some anti-colonial elements (Namdhari). For the early 20th century, specifically the Akali Movement, emphasize its mass character, adoption of non-violent Satyagraha, and direct confrontation with the state for religious institutional control, linking it closely with the broader nationalist movement. The shift from primarily revivalist to politically assertive and mass-based.
2. UPSC CSE 2019: Analyze the factors that led to the rise of socio-religious reform movements in 19th-century India.
Direction: While general, a specific section could focus on Sikhism. Factors include internal decadence (corrupt Mahants, ritualism, caste), external threats (Christian missionaries, Arya Samaj), and the impact of Western ideas/education. Explain how these factors manifested in the specific aims and methods of Nirankari, Namdhari, and Singh Sabha movements.
Original MCQs for Prelims
1. Consider the following pairs:
- Nirankari Movement: Anand Marriage
- Namdhari Movement: Malerkotla Incident
- Akali Movement: Khalsa College, Amritsar
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (a)
Explanation: Anand Marriage was promoted by the Nirankaris. The Malerkotla Incident is associated with the brutal suppression of the Namdharis. Khalsa College, Amritsar, was a key outcome and initiative of the Singh Sabha Movement, not the Akali Movement.
2. With reference to the Sikh Reform Movements, which of the following statements is/are correct?
- The Namdhari Movement was known for its strong pro-British stance.
- The Chief Khalsa Diwan emerged from the merger of the Amritsar and Lahore Singh Sabhas.
- The Sikh Gurdwaras Act of 1925 placed Gurdwaras under the control of hereditary Mahants.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only
Answer: (b)
Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect; the Namdhari Movement had a strong anti-British stance. Statement 2 is correct; the Chief Khalsa Diwan was formed by the merger of the two main Singh Sabhas. Statement 3 is incorrect; the Act was passed to liberate Gurdwaras from corrupt Mahants and place them under the SGPC.
Original Descriptive Questions for Mains
1. "The Sikh Reform Movements of the 19th and early 20th centuries were not merely religious puritanical efforts but also crucial expressions of identity assertion and socio-political awakening." Discuss.
Key Points/Structure:
- Introduction: Briefly define the Sikh Reform Movements and their broad context.
- Religious Puritanical Efforts: Discuss how movements like Nirankari and Namdhari aimed to purify Sikhism, return to core tenets, and eradicate 'un-Sikh' practices.
- Identity Assertion: Focus on the Singh Sabha Movement's role in defining a distinct Sikh identity, countering proselytization, and promoting Punjabi/Gurmukhi.
- Socio-Political Awakening:
- Social: Reforms like inter-caste marriage, anti-child marriage, women's education.
- Political: Namdhari's anti-British stance, Akali Movement's direct confrontation with colonial-backed Mahants, adoption of Satyagraha, linkage with nationalism, leading to SGPC.
- Conclusion: Summarize how these movements evolved to encompass social reform and political assertion, consolidating Sikh identity and establishing modern institutions.
2. Analyze the factors that transformed the Sikh reform impulse from an inward-looking puritanical movement to a mass-based political struggle against colonial collaboration. How significant was the Akali Movement in this transition?
Key Points/Structure:
- Introduction: Briefly introduce early Sikh reform efforts (Nirankari) as inward-looking.
- Factors for Transformation: Internal decay, external threats (missionaries, Arya Samaj), colonial interference (British support for Mahants), influence of Nationalist Movement (Gandhian Satyagraha), evolution of leadership.
- Significance of Akali Movement:
- Mass Mobilization, Direct Confrontation (British-supported authority), Adoption of Satyagraha, Key Events (Nankana Sahib, Guru ka Bagh) galvanizing community, Institutional Outcome (SGPC), Link with Nationalism.
- Conclusion: Akali Movement marked a decisive shift towards a politically conscious, mass-based struggle, shaping modern Sikh identity and institutions.