Introduction & Context
The period following the Swadeshi Movement, roughly from the late 1900s to the outbreak of World War I, witnessed the rise of the first phase of revolutionary nationalism (often termed revolutionary terrorism by the British) in India.
This trend emerged from a growing disillusionment among a section of youth with the perceived failures of both Moderate constitutionalism and Extremist mass agitation to achieve tangible results against an increasingly repressive colonial state. Inspired by international revolutionary movements and driven by a fervent desire for immediate independence, these revolutionaries believed in overthrowing British rule through armed struggle and individual heroic actions.
Operating through secret societies in India and revolutionary groups abroad, they engaged in assassinations of unpopular British officials, Swadeshi dacoities to fund their activities, and attempts to incite armed rebellion. While this phase was met with severe government repression and ultimately failed to dislodge British rule, the courage, sacrifice, and patriotism of these revolutionaries left an indelible mark on the freedom struggle, inspiring future generations.
Unpacking the Core
8.7.1: Reasons for Emergence
Several factors contributed to the rise of revolutionary activities, marking a significant shift in the nationalist strategy:
Failure of Constitutional Methods & Mass Resistance
Moderates: Slow pace and limited success disillusioned many, especially youth.
Extremists: Decline of Swadeshi Movement post-1908 due to repression and splits left a vacuum; perceived failure of mass passive resistance to yield immediate Swaraj frustrated impatient nationalists.
Government Repression & Suppression
Severe British repression of the Swadeshi Movement (bans, arrests, deportations like Tilak's, repressive press laws) made open political agitation difficult. This pushed many nationalists towards secret societies and underground activities.
Inspiration from International Movements
Russian Nihilists & Irish Nationalists: Emulated methods of assassination and secret societies.
Italian Unification (Mazzini & Young Italy): Idea of secret societies working for national liberation.
Appeal to Youth: Quick, Heroic Action
The ideology appealed to the idealism, patriotism, and impatience of the youth. They were drawn to direct action, individual heroism, and ultimate sacrifice, believing it would inspire the masses and demoralize the British.
8.7.2: Ideology and Methods
Revolutionary nationalists had a distinct ideology and methodology, though it varied among groups:
Belief in Armed Struggle for Independence
They fundamentally rejected achieving freedom through peaceful means or within the British Empire. Their goal was complete independence, achieved by forcibly ejecting the British.
Key Methods Employed
- Individual Heroic Actions (Assassination): Targeting unpopular British officials, police informers, and collaborators to strike terror and avenge humiliation.
- Swadeshi Dacoities (Political Dacoities): Robberies to raise funds for arms, ammunition, and revolutionary activities.
- Conspiracy and Secret Societies: Organizing underground to plan and execute acts, disseminate propaganda, and recruit members.
- Attempts to incite mutinies in the army and organize armed uprisings.
Aim: Instill Fear & Inspire Masses
Revolutionaries believed their bravery and sacrifice would awaken the masses, inspire them to join the struggle, and demoralize the British administration.
8.7.3: Major Revolutionary Activities in India
Revolutionary activities were prominent in Bengal, Maharashtra, and Punjab, with some presence elsewhere, each with distinct groups and notable incidents:
Maharashtra
-
Chapekar Brothers (Damodar, Balkrishna, Vasudeo Hari Chapekar):
- Assassination of W.C. Rand (Plague Commissioner of Poona) and Lt. Ayerst in Poona in 1897. Earliest instance of revolutionary terrorism.
-
Abhinav Bharat Society (Poona, 1904):
- Founded by V.D. Savarkar and Ganesh Savarkar, outgrowth of Mitra Mela.
- Secret society inspired by Mazzini's "Young Italy".
- Nasik Conspiracy Case (1909): Involvement in assassination of A.M.T. Jackson (DM of Nasik).
Bengal (Hotbed of Activity)
-
Anushilan Samiti (Calcutta & Dacca branches):
- Founded by P. Mitra (Calcutta, 1902). Leaders: Aurobindo Ghosh (ideological inspiration), Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Bagha Jatin, Bhupendranath Datta.
- Activities: Physical & moral training, revolutionary literature (like *Bhavani Mandir*).
-
Jugantar (Yugantar) Group:
- Emerged from Anushilan Samiti, focused on direct action. Published revolutionary weekly *Yugantar*.
-
Alipore Bomb Conspiracy Case (1908):
- Attempt on Douglas Kingsford (Muzaffarpur) by Khudiram Bose & Prafulla Chaki (mistakenly killed two British women).
- Khudiram Bose hanged, Prafulla Chaki self-executed. Aurobindo Ghosh (defended by C.R. Das) acquitted.
-
Rash Behari Bose & Sachin Sanyal:
- Organized Delhi Bomb Case (1912): Attempt on Viceroy Lord Hardinge during ceremonial entry to Delhi. Hardinge survived.
- Rash Behari Bose escaped, later influencing Ghadar Movement & INA.
Other Regions
-
Punjab:
- Key figures: Ajit Singh (Bhagat Singh's uncle), Sufi Amba Prasad, Bhai Parmanand.
- Agitation among peasantry against oppressive colonial laws.
-
Madras Presidency:
- Vanchi Iyer of Bharata Mata Association assassinated Robert Ashe (District Magistrate of Tirunelveli) in 1911 for suppressing Swadeshi. Iyer committed suicide.
8.7.4: Revolutionary Activities Abroad
Indian revolutionaries established centers abroad to gather support, funds, and arms, extending the struggle beyond India's borders:
Europe (England & France)
-
England: India House (London, 1905)
- Founded by Shyamji Krishnavarma. Center for revolutionaries & students.
- Published *The Indian Sociologist*.
- Associated figures: V.D. Savarkar, Madan Lal Dhingra, Lala Hardayal.
- Madan Lal Dhingra assassinated Sir William Curzon Wyllie (India Office official) in London in 1909. Dhingra executed.
-
France (Paris):
- Refuge for revolutionaries.
- Madame Bhikaji Cama: Prominent Parsi revolutionary. Hoisted first version of Indian national flag at Stuttgart Socialist Congress (Germany, 1907).
USA & Canada (The Ghadar Movement, 1913)
-
Foundation: By Indian immigrants (mostly Sikhs from Punjab) on West Coast of USA/Canada.
- Key founders: Lala Hardayal (intellectual guide), Sohan Singh Bhakna (President), Tarak Nath Das, Kartar Singh Sarabha.
- Headquarters: San Francisco. Published weekly paper *Ghadar* (Rebellion).
- Aim: Incite armed rebellion in India, especially by encouraging Indian soldiers to mutiny. Utilized WWI outbreak as an opportunity.
- Komagata Maru Incident (1914): Ship carrying immigrants denied entry to Canada, forced back to Calcutta. Clashes with police at Budge Budge fueled anti-British sentiments.
- Attempted Ghadar Uprising in Punjab (1915): Plan foiled due to betrayal, poor organization, and repression (Defence of India Act, 1915). Many arrested (Lahore Conspiracy Case) and punished.
Germany
-
Berlin Committee for Indian Independence (1915): Formed during WWI.
- Key figures: Virendranath Chattopadhyay, Bhupendranath Dutta, Lala Hardayal (after leaving USA).
- Zimmerman Plan: Attempted to secure German arms and support for an armed uprising in India during WWI, coordinating with Ghadarites.
8.7.5: Government Repression & Decline
The British government responded to revolutionary nationalism with severe repressive measures, leading to its eventual decline in this phase:
Severe Suppression & Legal Measures
- Widespread arrests, lengthy trials (e.g., Alipore Bomb Case, Nasik Conspiracy Case, Lahore Conspiracy Case).
- Deportations and executions of many revolutionaries.
Repressive Legislation:
- Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act (1907)
- Explosive Substances Act (1908)
- Indian Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act (1908)
- Indian Press Act (1910)
- Defence of India Act (1915)
These acts gave the government sweeping powers to curb political activities, suppress the press, and detain suspects without trial.
Decline & Enduring Legacy
By the beginning of World War I (1914), and especially after the failure of the Ghadar uprising, the first phase of revolutionary nationalism in India was largely suppressed.
Legacy:
- Inspiration & Patriotism: Despite its failure to achieve immediate independence, the movement created a powerful legacy of heroism, sacrifice, and unwavering patriotism.
- Kept Resistance Alive: During a period when mainstream nationalism was weakened, revolutionaries kept the spirit of active resistance alive.
- Pressure on British: Their activities created unease and forced the British to acknowledge nationalist discontent.
- Influence on Later Movements: Inspired future generations of freedom fighters, including Bhagat Singh and Subhas Chandra Bose, who adopted more sophisticated ideologies and methods.
Summary Table: Revolutionary Nationalism – First Phase
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Reasons for Emergence | Failure of Moderate/Extremist mass methods for quick results; Govt. repression of open politics; Inspiration from international revolutionary movements; Appeal to youth. |
| Ideology | Overthrow British rule through armed struggle/violence; Complete independence; Instill fear in British, inspire masses. |
| Methods | Individual heroic actions (assassinations), Swadeshi dacoities (fundraising), conspiracies, secret societies. |
| Major Groups/Activities in India | Maharashtra: Chapekar Brothers (Rand & Ayerst), Abhinav Bharat Society (V.D. Savarkar, Nasik Conspiracy). Bengal: Anushilan Samiti (Aurobindo, Barindra), Jugantar Group, Alipore Bomb Case (Khudiram Bose, Prafulla Chaki), Delhi Bomb Case (Rash Behari Bose, Sachin Sanyal). Punjab: Ajit Singh. Madras: Vanchi Iyer (Ashe). |
| Activities Abroad | England: India House (Shyamji Krishnavarma, Madan Lal Dhingra). France: Madame Bhikaji Cama. USA/Canada: Ghadar Movement (Lala Hardayal, Sohan Singh Bhakna, Komagata Maru, failed uprising). Germany: Berlin Committee (V. Chattopadhyay, Zimmerman Plan). |
| Government Repression & Decline | Severe suppression (arrests, trials, executions), repressive acts (Press Acts, Seditious Meetings Act, Defence of India Act). Largely suppressed by WWI, but left legacy. |
Study Notes & Analysis
Prelims-ready Notes
- Reasons for Rise: Failure of Moderates/Extremists for quick results, government repression, international inspiration.
- Methods: Assassinations, Swadeshi dacoities, secret societies.
- Maharashtra: Chapekar Brothers (Rand & Ayerst, 1897); Abhinav Bharat Society (1904, V.D. Savarkar; Nasik Conspiracy Case 1909 - Jackson).
- Bengal: Anushilan Samiti (P. Mitra, Aurobindo, Barindra, Bagha Jatin); Jugantar Group (Yugantar); Alipore Bomb Case (1908 - Khudiram Bose & Prafulla Chaki, Kingsford); Delhi Bomb Case (1912 - Rash Behari Bose, Sachin Sanyal, Hardinge).
- Madras: Vanchi Iyer assassinated Collector Ashe (1911).
- Abroad: England (India House, 1905, Shyamji Krishnavarma, *The Indian Sociologist*; Madan Lal Dhingra assassinated Curzon Wyllie 1909). France (Madame Bhikaji Cama, Stuttgart 1907). USA/Canada (Ghadar Movement, 1913, Lala Hardayal, Sohan Singh Bhakna, *Ghadar*; Komagata Maru 1914). Germany (Berlin Committee, 1915, Virendranath Chattopadhyay, Zimmerman Plan).
- Repressive Acts: Seditious Meetings Act (1907), Newspapers Act (1908), Indian Press Act (1910), Defence of India Act (1915).
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
The shift represented a move away from mass-based agitation towards individual heroic acts and secret conspiracies, partly due to government repression and belief that such acts would inspire. Reliance on individual actions limited broader mobilization.
Deeply patriotic, driven by injustice and immediate freedom. Inspired by Indian traditions (heroes, scriptures) and Western revolutionary thought (Irish, Russian, Italian). Believed in philosophy of sacrifice to awaken nation.
- Limited Social Base: Primarily educated youth, failed to mobilize peasants/workers.
- Lack of Centralized Organization: Poor coordination, reliance on isolated groups.
- Dependence on Individual Acts: Could not overthrow British Empire; officials easily replaced.
- Inadequate Resources: Constant struggle for funds and arms.
- Severe Government Repression: British intelligence and machinery effectively crushed them.
- Alienation from Mainstream Politics: Methods often at odds with Congress, leading to isolation.
- Inspiration and Patriotism: Created immense patriotism and spirit of sacrifice; martyrs became folklore.
- Kept the Flame of Resistance Alive: Maintained active resistance during Congress's weakened phase.
- Pressure on the British: Created unease and forced acknowledgement of discontent.
- Influence on Later Movements: Inspired Bhagat Singh, Subhas Chandra Bose and others to develop more sophisticated methods.
Contemporary & Ongoing Impact
- Debates on Violence vs. Non-Violence: Historical discussions continue on their methods contrasted with non-violence.
- Patriotism and Sacrifice: Stories are still recounted as tales of extreme patriotism and self-sacrifice.
- Understanding Radicalization: Factors (repression, disillusionment, youth impatience) offer insights into political radicalization.
- Commemoration of Revolutionaries: Anniversaries (birth/martyrdom) often lead to public/political discussions on their legacy (e.g., V.D. Savarkar).
- Historical Research, Museums & Memorials: Ongoing efforts to shed light on their activities and preserve associated sites.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
1. UPSC Prelims 2006: Where were the Ghadar revolutionaries, who became active during the outbreak of the World War I, based?
(a) Central America (b) North America (c) West America (d) South America
Answer: (b)
Hint: The Ghadar Party was primarily based on the West Coast of the USA and Canada (North America).
2. UPSC Prelims 2021: Who among the following was associated as Secretary with Hindu Female School which later came to be known as Bethune Female School?
(a) Annie Besant (b) Debendranath Tagore (c) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (d) Sarojini Naidu
Answer: (c)
Hint: While not directly about revolutionary nationalism, knowing key figures from the 19th-century reform and education movements provides context to the intellectual background of early nationalists.
3. UPSC Prelims (Illustrative, based on topic): The Alipore Bomb Conspiracy Case (1908) was related to the activities of which revolutionary organization?
(a) Abhinav Bharat Society (b) Ghadar Party (c) Anushilan Samiti (d) Hindustan Republican Association
Answer: (c)
Hint: Key figures like Aurobindo Ghosh and Barindra Kumar Ghosh, associated with the Anushilan Samiti, were implicated in the Alipore Bomb Case.
1. UPSC Mains 2014: The crisis of the colonial order in the late nineteenth century was reflected in the rise of militant nationalism in India. Explain.
Direction: "Militant nationalism" here encompasses both Extremism and Revolutionary Nationalism. Discuss how the failures of Moderates and British repression (crisis of colonial order) led not only to Extremist politics but also to the emergence of revolutionary violence as an alternative path for some.
2. UPSC Mains 2013: Discuss the role of the Ghadar Party in the Indian National Movement.
Direction: Cover its origins (USA/Canada, leaders, Ghadar paper), ideology (secular, armed overthrow, focus on soldiers), activities (propaganda, Komagata Maru, Punjab uprising attempts), reasons for failure (betrayal, repression, lack of support), and significance/legacy (international dimension, inspired secular/militant nationalism, heroism).
Original MCQs for Prelims
1. Match List-I (Revolutionary Event/Organization) with List-II (Associated Figure) and select the correct answer using the code given below the lists:
| List-I | List-II |
|---|---|
| A. Assassination of Rand | 1. Lala Hardayal |
| B. India House, London | 2. Damodar Chapekar |
| C. Ghadar Party | 3. Rash Behari Bose |
| D. Delhi Bomb Case (1912) | 4. Shyamji Krishnavarma |
Code:
(a) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3 (b) A-4, B-2, C-3, D-1 (c) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3 (d) A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3
Answer: (a)
Explanation: A. Assassination of Rand – Damodar Chapekar. B. India House, London – Shyamji Krishnavarma. C. Ghadar Party – Lala Hardayal. D. Delhi Bomb Case (1912) – Rash Behari Bose.
2. The "Zimmerman Plan" during World War I, involving Indian revolutionaries in Germany, primarily aimed to:
(a) Secure financial aid from American industrialists for the Indian freedom struggle.
(b) Organize a naval blockade of British ports in India.
(c) Obtain German arms and support for an armed uprising in India against British rule.
(d) Establish a provisional independent Indian government in exile in Berlin.
Answer: (c)
Explanation: The Zimmerman Plan was a German initiative during WWI that involved an attempt to support an armed rebellion in India by providing arms and assistance to Indian revolutionaries organized under the Berlin Committee for Indian Independence.
Original Descriptive Questions for Mains
1. "The first phase of revolutionary nationalism in India, though characterized by individual heroism and immense sacrifice, ultimately failed to achieve its objective of overthrowing British rule." Critically examine the reasons for its emergence, its methods, and the factors contributing to its decline.
Key Points/Structure:
- Introduction: Acknowledge patriotic fervor, sacrifices, and ultimate failure.
- Reasons for Emergence: Disillusionment with Moderates/Extremists, British repression, international inspiration, appeal to youth.
- Methods: Individual assassinations, dacoities, secret societies, propaganda, mutiny attempts.
- Factors Contributing to Decline/Failure: Severe government repression (laws, intelligence), limited mass base, organizational weaknesses, inadequate resources, limited impact of individual acts, failure of external support.
- Legacy (Despite Failure): Instilled patriotism, kept resistance alive, inspired future generations.
- Conclusion: Summarize the paradox of immense courage leading to limited immediate success but profound long-term influence.
2. Compare the ideology and methods of the Extremists (Assertive Nationalists) with those of the Revolutionary Nationalists during the early 20th century in India. What were the key similarities and differences?
Key Points/Structure:
- Introduction: Briefly introduce both as radical alternatives to Moderates.
- Extremists (Ideology & Methods): Swaraj (evolving), self-reliance, national pride; Passive resistance, Swadeshi/Boycott, National Education, mass mobilization.
- Revolutionary Nationalists (Ideology & Methods): Complete independence via armed struggle/force; Individual heroic actions (assassinations), dacoities, secret societies, mutiny attempts.
- Similarities: Both aimed for greater self-rule/independence, distrusted British, emphasized sacrifice, desired action, drew on Indian heritage.
- Differences: Scale of action (mass vs. individual/small group), acceptance of violence (passive resistance vs. explicit violence), organizational structure (open Congress vs. secret societies), approach to masses (mobilize for non-violent action vs. inspire through heroism).
- Conclusion: Both were radical departures from Moderates, differing significantly in methods/scale, but jointly intensified the freedom struggle.