Introduction
The period between 1945 and 1947 was one of the most tumultuous and transformative in modern Indian history. The aftermath of World War II significantly weakened the British Empire, while concurrently, Indian nationalism reached its zenith. This era was characterized by intense political negotiations, the escalating problem of communalism, culminating in the tragic partition of the subcontinent and the dawn of independence for India and Pakistan.
The swift pace of events, driven by both British compulsions and Indian political dynamics, led to a freedom that was joyous yet deeply scarred by violence and displacement.
Impact of World War II
Britain Weakened (Economically)
Britain faced enormous war debts (especially to USA), shattered industrial infrastructure, and a severe balance of payments crisis. India itself was a large creditor to Britain.
Britain Weakened (Militarily)
Though victorious, Britain's military strength was severely depleted, and its global power projection capability was diminished, making it difficult to maintain control over India.
Rise of New Global Powers
The war established the USA and USSR as the two dominant global superpowers, both ideologically opposed to colonialism, increasing international pressure on Britain.
Labour Party in Power
The victory of the Labour Party in July 1945, with Clement Attlee as PM, brought a government more sympathetic to Indian independence aspirations, favoring self-rule.
Changed Global Political Climate
The Atlantic Charter and the newly formed UN promoted principles of self-determination. Colonialism was increasingly seen as morally indefensible and politically unsustainable.
Heightened Nationalist Expectations
The suppressed Quit India Movement, INA trials, and widespread unrest (e.g., RIN Mutiny, 1946) demonstrated that British rule was untenable in India.
Wavell Plan & Shimla Conference (1945)
Wavell Plan Proposals
Aim: Break political deadlock, secure war cooperation, pave way for new constitution.
Key Proposal: Reconstitution of Viceroy's Executive Council as an all-Indian council (except Viceroy and C-in-C).
Representation: Proposed equal representation for Caste Hindus and Muslims in the Council.
Shimla Conference Deadlock
Conference of 21 Indian political leaders failed due to Muslim League's demands: Jinnah insisted League be the sole representative of all Indian Muslims and that all Muslim members in the Council must be League nominees. Congress could not accept, negating its secular character. Wavell acknowledged Jinnah's intransigence.
General Elections (1945-46)
These elections were crucial as their results would influence the formation of the Constituent Assembly and demonstrate political legitimacy.
Congress Performance
Swept the general constituencies, winning 91.3% of the non-Muslim votes. Secured majorities in most provinces (except Bengal, Sindh, Punjab), demonstrating widespread support among the general electorate.
Muslim League Performance
Won all 30 reserved Muslim seats in the Central Legislative Assembly and 442 out of 509 Muslim seats in the provincial assemblies (86.6% of Muslim votes). This significantly strengthened Jinnah's claim as the sole representative of Indian Muslims and bolstered demand for Pakistan. Results starkly highlighted the communal divide.
The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)
Composition and Objectives
Sent by Attlee government, arrived 24 March 1946. Members: Lord Pethick-Lawrence (Head), Sir Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander.
Objectives: Achieve independence, set up Constituent Assembly, establish Interim Government.
Rejection of Pakistan
The Mission explicitly rejected the demand for a sovereign Pakistan, citing reasons like the communal problem (large minorities on both sides), and geographical/economic non-viability of proposed states if partitioned.
Key Proposal: Three-Tiered Federal Structure for United India
- Congress: Accepted long-term plan (Constituent Assembly) and rejection of Pakistan. Reservations about compulsory grouping (esp. NWFP, Assam). Interpreted grouping as optional for provinces from outset. Rejected interim government initially.
- Muslim League: Accepted entire plan (6 June 1946), seeing compulsory grouping as a step towards Pakistan. Later withdrew acceptance (29 July 1946) in response to Congress's interpretation of grouping and Nehru's statement on Constituent Assembly's autonomy.
Direct Action Day & Communal Holocaust
Muslim League's Call
After withdrawing Cabinet Mission acceptance (29 July 1946), Muslim League called for 16 August 1946 as "Direct Action Day." Purpose: To protest British/Congress betrayal and demonstrate Muslim determination for Pakistan. Jinnah: "We have forged a pistol..."
Great Calcutta Killings
Direct Action Day in Calcutta led to horrific communal riots (16-19 August 1946). Thousands killed, many injured. Marked the beginning of intense communal violence. Spread to Noakhali, Tippera, Bihar, Garhmukteshwar, and later Punjab.
Interim Government (1946)
Formation by Congress
Despite League's boycott and violence, Viceroy Wavell invited Congress. Sworn in on 2 September 1946, with Jawaharlal Nehru as de facto head (Vice-President of Viceroy's Executive Council).
Muslim League Joins (to Obstruct)
League joined on 26 October 1946, nominating 5 members (including Liaquat Ali Khan, Finance portfolio). Their aim: to obstruct functioning from within and strengthen their case for Pakistan, refusing to attend Constituent Assembly. Interim Government became another arena of conflict.
Constituent Assembly
Elections and Composition
Elections for 296 British India seats completed by July 1946.
Congress: 208 seats (all general except 9).
Muslim League: 73 seats (all Muslim except 5).
Others: 15 seats. Princely states to nominate later.
First Meeting & Key Developments
First meeting: 9 December 1946, New Delhi. Boycotted by Muslim League.
Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha: Temporary President.
Dr. Rajendra Prasad: Elected permanent President (11 Dec).
Jawaharlal Nehru: Moved "Objectives Resolution" (13 Dec) outlining Constitution's philosophy (later Preamble).
Attlee's Announcement (Feb 1947)
Key Declarations
PM Clement Attlee announced British would quit India by 30 June 1948 at the latest. Power transfer to united Indian government, or failing that, to provincial governments or "some other way" (implicitly opening door for partition).
Lord Louis Mountbatten appointed new Viceroy to oversee the transfer of power by the stipulated date.
Mountbatten Plan / June 3rd Plan (1947)
Mountbatten's Assessment
Arrived 22 March 1947. Concluded united India impossible due to Congress-League gap. Partition inevitable to avoid civil war. Rejected "Plan Balkan" (fragmentation) after Nehru's strong opposition.
Key Proposals (Announced 3 June 1947)
- Congress: Reluctantly accepted, seeing it as a bitter pill necessary to avoid larger catastrophe (civil war, balkanization) and achieve a strong central government. (Patel, Nehru).
- Muslim League: Accepted, as it meant creation of Pakistan, despite Jinnah's unhappiness with a "moth-eaten" Pakistan (due to Punjab/Bengal partition).
- Mahatma Gandhi: Deeply distressed by decision and violence; consistently opposed partition. His efforts for unity failed.
Indian Independence Act, 1947
Key Provisions (Passed 18 July 1947)
Partition and its Horrors
Radcliffe Boundary Commission
Sir Cyril Radcliffe chaired commissions for Punjab and Bengal. Awards announced 17 August 1947 (post-independence), causing confusion and exacerbating violence. Highly controversial, accused of bias and ignoring local realities, leading to long-term disputes.
Mass Violence & Migrations
Period saw unprecedented communal violence (500,000 to 1M killed), mass abductions, rapes, looting, arson, especially in Punjab and Bengal.
Largest Mass Migrations: 10-15 million people uprooted, forced to cross borders, becoming refugees. Immense strain on new nations.
Attainment of Independence (15 August 1947)
A New Dawn
India achieved independence on 15 August 1947, ending nearly 200 years of British colonial rule. Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister of independent India. Pakistan celebrated its independence on 14 August 1947, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah as its first Governor-General. The joy of freedom was tragically marred by the pain and trauma of partition.
Summary Table: Key Negotiations & Plans
| Plan/Event | Year | Key Proposers/Actors | Main Proposals | Outcome/Significance |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wavell Plan | June 1945 | Lord Wavell | Reconstitute Exec. Council: parity for Caste Hindus & Muslims. | Failed (Shimla Conference deadlock due to League's demands). |
| General Elections | 1945-46 | Indian Electorate | Congress won general seats; League won most Muslim seats. | Polarized electorate; strengthened League's claim for Pakistan. |
| Cabinet Mission | Mar-May 1946 | Pethick-Lawrence, Cripps, Alexander | Rejected Pakistan; 3-tier federation; Constituent Assembly; Interim Govt. | Initially accepted by both, League withdrew. Led to Direct Action Day. |
| Attlee's Statement | Feb 1947 | PM Clement Attlee | Britain to leave by June 1948; power transfer to united/provincial govts. Mountbatten as new Viceroy. | Set definite timeline; acknowledged possibility of partition. |
| Mountbatten Plan | June 1947 | Lord Mountbatten | Partition into India & Pakistan; Princely states' choice; referendums; Boundary Commission. | Accepted by Congress & League. Led to Indian Independence Act & Partition. |
Exam Ready Notes
Prelims-ready Notes
- WWII Impact: Britain weakened (econ, mil); US/USSR rise; Labour Party (Attlee) sympathetic; Global anti-colonial sentiment; INA trials, RIN Mutiny fueled nationalism.
- Wavell Plan (June 1945): Reconstitute Viceroy's Exec. Council (all Indian except Viceroy, C-in-C); equal representation for Caste Hindus & Muslims.
- Shimla Conference (June-July 1945): Failed. Jinnah: League sole Muslim rep, veto. Congress opposed.
- General Elections (1945-46): Congress swept general seats; League won most Muslim seats -> polarized.
- Cabinet Mission (Mar-May 1946): Pethick-Lawrence, Cripps, Alexander. Rejected Pakistan. Proposed 3-tier federation (Union, Provincial Groups A,B,C, Provinces). Constituent Assembly (indirect election). Interim Govt.
- Congress: Accepted long-term (Constituent Assembly), reservations on grouping.
- League: Accepted (saw Pakistan in grouping), later withdrew (July '46).
- Direct Action Day (16 Aug 1946): League's call -> Great Calcutta Killings. Riots in Noakhali, Bihar.
- Interim Govt (Sept 1946): Nehru head. League joined Oct '46 to obstruct.
- Constituent Assembly (Dec 1946): 1st meeting 9 Dec. League boycotted. Rajendra Prasad President. Nehru's Objectives Resolution (13 Dec).
- Attlee's Announcement (20 Feb 1947): Britain to quit by June 1948. Mountbatten new Viceroy.
- Mountbatten Plan / June 3rd Plan (3 June 1947): Partition inevitable. India & Pakistan dominions. Princely states option. Referendum NWFP, Sylhet. Punjab & Bengal assemblies vote on partition -> Boundary Commission (Radcliffe). Power transfer by 15 Aug 1947.
- Indian Independence Act (July 1947): Implemented Mountbatten Plan. Two Dominions (India, Pakistan) from 15 Aug 1947. Viceroy, SoS offices abolished. Constituent Assemblies sovereign. Paramountcy over princely states lapsed.
- Partition Horrors: Radcliffe Award (17 Aug '47) controversial. Mass violence (Punjab, Bengal), migrations (~15M), refugee crisis. Gandhi's peace efforts; assassinated 30 Jan 1948.
- Independence (15 Aug 1947): Nehru first PM of India.
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
- Inevitability of Partition: Arguments for (deep-rooted communal politics, Jinnah's intransigence, Congress's shortcomings) vs. Arguments against/Contingency (specific political choices, miscalculations, role of individuals).
- Responsibility for Partition: Complex & multi-causal: British policies, League's separatism, Congress's strategic errors, escalating communal violence.
- Could violence be averted/mitigated? Hasty timeline, inadequate administrative/military preparations, late Radcliffe Award worsened chaos.
- Rise of Communalism: Culmination of colonial policies, tragic outcome of partition.
- Decline of Colonialism: WWII accelerated end of colonial era globally.
- Continuity & Change in Governance: Inheritance of colonial structures, legal systems, and Govt of India Act 1935 as interim constitution.
- Legacy of Partition: Enduring impact on India-Pakistan relations, border disputes (Kashmir), communal tensions, refugee issue.
- Secularism in India: Partition reinforced commitment to secular state.
- Federalism: Cabinet Mission's proposals highlight attempts to accommodate diversity; India's current quasi-federal structure.
- Border Management & Security: Radcliffe Line still defines borders, ongoing challenges.
- Refugee Rights & Citizenship: Memory informs debates (e.g., CAA).
- Real-world Examples: Kartarpur Corridor, Indus Waters Treaty discussions.
Current Affairs & Recent Developments
Connecting History to the Present:
While direct "current affairs" are limited for this historical period, its enduring legacy profoundly influences contemporary India. Connections can be made through:
- Commemoration of Partition Horrors Remembrance Day (August 14): Observed since 2021 to acknowledge suffering.
- Discussions on Colonial Legacy: Ongoing debates globally and in India about decolonizing minds, institutions, and historical narratives.
- Debates on Historical Figures: Re-evaluations of roles of Nehru, Patel, Jinnah, Gandhi in context of partition continue.
- Border Infrastructure Development: Continued upgrades along borders (e.g., Radcliffe Line) for security and connectivity.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Prelims MCQs
1. UPSC Prelims 2016: The plan of Sir Stafford Cripps envisaged that after the Second World War
- (a) India should be granted complete independence
- (b) India should be partitioned into two before granting independence
- (c) India should be made a republic with the condition that she will join the Commonwealth
- (d) India should be given Dominion status
Ans. (d)
2. UPSC Prelims 2010: The Cabinet Mission to India was headed by
- (a) Stafford Cripps
- (b) A.V. Alexander
- (c) Lord Pethick-Lawrence
- (d) Hugh Gaitskell
Ans. (c)
3. UPSC Prelims 2022: With reference to the proposals of Cripps Mission, consider the following statements:
- The Constituent Assembly would have members nominated by the Provincial Assemblies as well as the Princely States.
- Any Province, which is not prepared to accept the new Constitution would have the right to sign a separate agreement with Britain regarding its future status.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 2 only
- (c) Both 1 and 2
- (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Ans. (b)
Mains Questions
1. UPSC Mains 2015 (Adapted): To what extent did the legacy of World War II influence the timing and nature of India's independence?
Direction:
Discuss Britain's weakened economic and military state, rise of US/USSR, Labour Party's victory, changed global opinion against colonialism. Link these to Britain's urgency to transfer power. Also, how war heightened Indian nationalist expectations and unrest (INA, RIN Mutiny).
2. (Hypothetical/Common) Why did the Congress accept the Mountbatten Plan, despite its vehement opposition to the idea of partition?
Direction:
Discuss the context: escalating communal violence (Great Calcutta Killings, Noakhali, Bihar, Punjab), failure of Cabinet Mission, obstructionist League in Interim Govt. Argue that Congress saw it as a necessary evil to avoid civil war, balkanization, and to achieve a strong, stable India (even if smaller). Role of Patel and Nehru.
Trend Analysis (UPSC Questioning Style)
Prelims Trend
Focus on key missions/plans (Cripps, Wavell, Cabinet Mission, Mountbatten Plan) – their proposals, members, and reasons for failure/acceptance. Sequence of events and role of key personalities are important. Shift towards slightly more analytical questions requiring nuanced understanding.
Mains Trend
More analytical "why/how" questions. Focus on causes and consequences of major events (e.g., Partition's inevitability, impact). Interplay of British policies, communalism, Congress/League strategies. Evaluation of plans. Increasing linkage to contemporary issues or long-term legacies (secularism, federalism, Indo-Pak relations).
Original MCQs for Prelims
1. Q. Consider the following regarding the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946):
- It explicitly recommended the creation of a separate sovereign state of Pakistan.
- It proposed a three-tiered federal structure with compulsory grouping of provinces into three sections.
- The Indian National Congress accepted the plan in its entirety without any reservations.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 2 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) None of the above
Ans. (a)
Explanation:
- Statement 1 is incorrect; the Cabinet Mission rejected the demand for Pakistan.
- Statement 2 is correct regarding the three-tier structure and compulsory grouping (though provinces could opt out later).
- Statement 3 is incorrect; Congress had strong reservations about the grouping clause and its interpretation.
2. Q. Which of the following was NOT a proposal of the Mountbatten Plan (June 3rd Plan, 1947)?
- (a) Partition of India into two dominions, India and Pakistan.
- (b) A referendum in NWFP and Sylhet district to determine their future.
- (c) Granting of independence to Princely States to form a third force.
- (d) Formation of a Boundary Commission to demarcate borders if Punjab and Bengal were partitioned.
Ans. (c)
Explanation:
While paramountcy lapsed and Princely States were given the option to join India or Pakistan or (theoretically) remain independent, the plan (and British advice) discouraged the idea of them becoming independent entities or a "third force." The primary options presented were accession to India or Pakistan.
Original Descriptive Questions for Mains
Hints/Structure for Answering:
- Introduction: Acknowledge the complexity and tragedy of Partition.
- Rapid Negotiations: Briefly outline Wavell Plan, Shimla Conference, Cabinet Mission, Interim Government, Attlee's statement, Mountbatten Plan – highlighting how each failed to secure a united India or was overtaken by events.
- Escalating Communal Tensions: Discuss the impact of 1945-46 elections, Direct Action Day, Great Calcutta Killings, and the spread of riots in Noakhali, Bihar, Punjab. Show how this vitiated the atmosphere for compromise.
- "Unavoidable" Aspect: Analyze arguments supporting this: Jinnah's intransigence, League's success in mobilizing Muslim opinion for Pakistan, British desire for a quick exit, Congress leaders' eventual acceptance to prevent civil war and balkanization.
- Critical Analysis/Counter-arguments (briefly): Could alternative leadership choices or different British handling have changed the outcome? (Acknowledge this is speculative but part of historical debate – e.g., Ayesha Jalal's view).
- Conclusion: Summarize that while multiple factors contributed, the combination of political failures in negotiations and the severe communal polarization created a situation where leaders perceived partition as the only way out of the impasse, however tragic.
Hints/Structure for Answering:
- Introduction: Contextualize the Cabinet Mission as a high-stakes British initiative.
- Proposals Aimed at Unity: Detail its key features: rejection of Pakistan, three-tier federal structure (weak centre, provincial groupings A, B, C), Constituent Assembly from provinces, interim government. Explain how these aimed to balance Congress's desire for unity and League's demand for autonomy/protection of Muslim interests.
- Reasons for Failure:
- Divergent Interpretations: Congress and League interpreted "grouping" differently (optional vs. compulsory for provinces initially). Nehru's July 10 statement.
- Mistrust: Deep-seated mistrust between Congress and League.
- League's Withdrawal: League withdrew acceptance after Congress's interpretation, fearing groups wouldn't lead to Pakistan.
- British Role: Some argue British were not forceful enough or played parties against each other, though Attlee's govt was more sincere.
- Escalating Communalism: Direct Action Day and subsequent riots made compromise harder.
- Significance of Failure: Its failure directly led to increased communal violence, League's hardening stance, and paved the way for Mountbatten to consider partition as the only viable option.
- Conclusion: The Cabinet Mission Plan was a complex and arguably ingenious attempt, but it failed due to irreducible differences, conflicting ambitions, misinterpretations, and the poisoned atmosphere of communal politics.