Introduction: A Period of Transition
The period following the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) in India (1934 onwards) was marked by significant political and constitutional developments that profoundly shaped the trajectory of the freedom struggle. The Government of India Act, 1935, enacted by the British Parliament, was a landmark piece of legislation that introduced a new constitutional framework for India, albeit one heavily criticized by Indian nationalists.
This Act led to the Provincial Elections of 1937, resulting in the formation of Congress Ministries in several provinces, offering a brief but crucial period of self-governance and demonstrating the viability of Indian leadership. However, this era was also characterized by growing communal tensions, the assertion of the Muslim League, and internal fissures within the Congress, notably the Tripuri Crisis involving Subhas Chandra Bose. These developments unfolded against the backdrop of an impending global conflict, setting the stage for India's eventual involvement in World War II and accelerating the demand for complete independence.
Government of India Act, 1935
9.6.1.1: Background
The Government of India Act, 1935, was the culmination of a long process of constitutional reforms and political negotiations:
- Simon Commission (1927): All-white commission to review 1919 Act. Boycotted by Indians. Recommended abolishing dyarchy in provinces, extending responsible government, federal structure, but no central responsibility.
- Round Table Conferences (RTCs) (1930-1932): Three conferences in London, involving Indian leaders (Gandhi in 2nd RTC). Agreed on federal structure and provincial autonomy, but minority safeguards remained contentious.
- White Paper (1933): British government's draft for proposed constitutional reforms, based on RTC discussions.
- Joint Select Committee Report: Chaired by Lord Linlithgow, scrutinized the White Paper, forming basis of the final bill.
- Longest Act: Comprised 321 sections and 10 schedules, reflecting its complexity.
9.6.1.2: Key Provisions
All-India Federation
- Proposed uniting British Indian provinces and Princely States.
- Accession for Princely States was voluntary.
- Never materialized as Princes did not join.
Provincial Autonomy
- Abolished Dyarchy in provinces (from 1919 Act).
- Introduced responsible government: elected ministers responsible to provincial legislatures.
- Governors retained significant special/discretionary powers.
Dyarchy at the Centre
- Introduced Dyarchy at Centre: Reserved (Defence, External Affairs) and Transferred subjects.
- Reserved by Governor-General with counsellors; Transferred with ministers.
- Did not come into effect as Federation failed.
Bicameral Legislature
- Proposed at Centre (Federal Assembly, Council of States).
- In Six Provinces: Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Bihar, Assam, United Provinces.
Expansion of Franchise
- Increased electorate from ~3% to 10-14% (~30 million).
- Communal electorates continued and expanded (SCs, women, labor).
Key Institutions & Territories
- Federal Court established in 1937.
- Reserve Bank of India (RBI) established in 1935.
- Burma separated (1937), Sindh and Orissa created.
9.6.1.3: Assessment and Reactions
Congress's Reaction
Unequivocal Rejection: Jawaharlal Nehru called it a "new charter of slavery." Gandhi termed it "thoroughly rotten, fundamentally bad, and totally unacceptable."
Criticisms:
- Lack of Dominion Status / Swaraj.
- Extensive Discretionary Powers of Governor-General/Governors.
- Further entrenched communal electorates.
- Indirect elections to Federal Assembly.
- No control over Defence and Foreign Affairs.
- Federal part seen as perpetuating British rule via Princely States.
Decision to Contest Elections: Despite rejection, Congress decided in 1936 to contest 1937 provincial elections, aiming to "wreck the constitution from within" or "use it for nationalist ends."
Muslim League's Reaction
Critical but Pragmatic: While criticizing aspects (e.g., lack of clear safeguards for Muslims), the League ultimately decided to work with the Act, viewing it as a step towards greater power for Indian politicians.
Jinnah called it "definitely a disappointment" but acknowledged its practical utility.
Princely States' Reaction
Reluctance to Join: Princes feared losing sovereignty and facing democratic pressures. Their non-accession led to the failure of the federal part of the Act.
Elections of 1937 & Congress Ministries
Congress Achieved Massive Victory
- Absolute majority in 5 out of 11 provinces: Madras, Bihar, Orissa, Central Provinces, United Provinces.
- Single largest party in Bombay and Assam, forming coalition governments.
- Later formed coalition in NWFP. Total: Congress ministries in 8 provinces.
- Won 716 out of 1161 contested seats.
Muslim League Performed Poorly
- Performed poorly, especially in Muslim-majority provinces (Punjab, Bengal, Sindh, NWFP).
- Won only 106 out of 482 reserved Muslim seats nationwide.
- Failed to win a majority even in a single Muslim-majority province.
- Convinced Jinnah to strengthen communal appeal for separate identity.
Controversy over Coalition in UP
- Congress had majority in UP; local League sought coalition.
- Congress (Nehru) refused formal coalition, offered inclusion on condition of merging with Congress legislature party.
- Perceived as an affront by League, fueling separatism and deepening communal mistrust, contributing to "Congress tyranny" narrative.
Work of Congress Ministries (1937-1939)
Achievements
Limitations & Muslim League's Reaction
- Constrained by Colonial Structure: Governors frequently used discretionary powers.
- Lack of Financial Resources: Hindered ambitious reforms.
- Internal Congress Contradictions: Differences between "right" and "left" wings, leading to watered-down reforms.
- Limited Impact on Poverty: Deep-seated issues couldn't be fundamentally altered in 28 months.
Muslim League's Anti-Congress Campaign:
- Launched concerted campaign alleging discrimination against Muslims.
- Propaganda Reports:
- Pirpur Report (1938): Alleged anti-Muslim policies, suppression of culture, imposition of Hindu symbols.
- Shareef Report (1939): Detailed alleged persecution in Bihar.
- Fazlul Huq's "Muslim Sufferings Under Congress Rule" (1939): Pamphlet on grievances.
- Allegations largely unsubstantiated but highly effective for propaganda.
- "Day of Deliverance": Observed on December 22, 1939, by Jinnah and League upon Congress ministries' resignation, further widening communal chasm.
Tripuri Crisis and Subhas Chandra Bose (1939)
Subhas Bose Re-elected Congress President
- At the Tripuri Session (1939), Bose contested against Mahatma Gandhi's preferred candidate, Pattabhi Sitaramayya.
- Bose won, despite Gandhi's open opposition, signaling a desire for a more confrontational approach.
- Gandhi: "Pattabhi's defeat is my defeat," highlighting ideological chasm.
Differences with Gandhi/Congress Right Wing
- Strategy against British: Bose advocated for immediate, aggressive struggle, sensing WWII was an opportune moment. Gandhi preferred caution.
- Internal Organization: Bose sought a strong, centralized Congress for direct action.
- Attitude towards British: Bose wanted an ultimatum for independence; Gandhi avoided mass struggle during international crisis.
- Economic Ideology: Bose leaned socialist/planned; Gandhi emphasized village industries.
Bose Forced to Resign, Formed Forward Bloc
- Faced immense pressure and non-cooperation from Congress Working Committee.
- Resigned from Congress presidency in April 1939; Rajendra Prasad became President.
- In May 1939, formed the Forward Bloc to unite radical elements.
- Later removed from all Congress positions for indiscipline, leading to his independent path and eventual escape from India in 1941.
Summary Table: Post-CDM Developments
| Event/Period | Key Aspect | Significance/Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| GoI Act, 1935 | Constitutional Framework | Longest Act; Provincial Autonomy implemented; Federal part failed; Led to 1937 elections; Basis for Indian Constitution. |
| 1937 Elections | Congress Dominance | Congress won 8 provinces; League's poor showing spurred separatism; UP coalition controversy. |
| Congress Ministries (1937-39) | Limited Self-Governance | Civil liberties restored, agrarian/social reforms (Wardha); Governor's powers limited impact; League launched anti-Congress campaign (Pirpur Report, Day of Deliverance). |
| Tripuri Crisis (1939) | Internal Congress Conflict | Bose vs. Gandhi (strategy); Bose re-elected, then resigned; Formed Forward Bloc; Highlighted ideological divide. |
| Prelude to WWII | Political Unrest | Congress resignation led to political vacuum; League's rise; Further communal polarization. |
Study Notes for UPSC Preparation
Prelims-ready Notes
- GoI Act 1935: Outcome of Simon Commission, RTCs, White Paper, Joint Select Committee. Longest British Act.
- Key Provisions: All-India Federation (proposed, failed), Provincial Autonomy (implemented, Governors' powers), Dyarchy at Centre (proposed, failed), Bicameralism (Centre & 6 provinces), Franchise (expanded to 10-14%), Communal electorates expanded, Federal Court (1937), RBI (1935), Burma separated (1937), Sindh & Orissa created.
- Reactions: Congress (Rejected, but contested to "wreck from within"), Muslim League (Criticized but worked it), Princes (Reluctant).
- 1937 Elections: Congress (Massive victory in 8 provinces), Muslim League (Poor performance, spurred separatism), UP Coalition controversy.
- Congress Ministries (1937-1939): Achievements (Civil liberties, agrarian reforms, Wardha Scheme), Limitations (Governor's powers, finance, internal contradictions), Muslim League's reaction (Pirpur, Shareef, Fazlul Huq reports, "Day of Deliverance" Dec 22, 1939).
- Tripuri Crisis (1939): Subhas Bose re-elected (defeating Pattabhi Sitaramayya), Differences with Gandhi on strategy, Bose resigned, formed Forward Bloc (May 1939).
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
- Wisdom of Accepting Office (1937): Pros (Admin experience, reforms, exposure of Act's flaws) vs. Cons (Legitimized framework, diverted attention, communal platform).
- Effectiveness of GoI Act 1935: Pros (Provincial autonomy, institutions, expanded franchise, blueprint for future constitution) vs. Cons (No Dominion Status, vast Governor powers, indirect elections, communal electorates, federal part failure).
- Role of Congress Ministries in Communalism: UP coalition controversy, League's propaganda (Pirpur Report), symbolic issues (Bande Mataram), "Day of Deliverance" exacerbated tensions, consolidating League's separate identity demand.
- Historical Trends: Constitutional Evolution (GoI Act 1935 as blueprint for Indian Constitution), Rise of Communal Politics (1937 elections deepened League's separatism), Internal Dissensions (Tripuri Crisis), Experience of Governance.
- Contemporary Relevance: Constitutional Legacy (Articles on federal structure, emergency powers, Governor, PSCs), Institution Building (RBI, Federal/Supreme Court), Lessons in Coalition Politics & Communalism, Federalism's Evolution.
Current Affairs & Developments
For this historical topic, direct "last one year" current affairs linkages are generally limited unless a significant historical discovery, declassification of archives, or a major historical study/anniversary event occurs. However, the relevance of the Act is perpetual in constitutional studies.
- Ongoing Constitutional Debates: Discussions around Centre-State balance, Governor's role, or parliamentary vs. presidential systems often refer back to 1935 Act's precedents.
- RBI's Role: RBI, established under this Act, remains foundational to India's financial system, its policies and autonomy constantly debated.
- Supreme Court's Evolution: The Supreme Court's origins in the Federal Court of 1935 Act highlight its lasting institutional legacy.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Prelims MCQs
UPSC CSE Prelims 2021: GoI Act 1935 Non-Implementation
Which of the following provisions of the Government of India Act, 1935 was NOT implemented?
- (a) Provincial autonomy
- (b) Dyarchy at the Centre
- (c) All-India Federation
- (d) Bicameral Legislature in some provinces
Hint: The All-India Federation proposed in the Act never materialized as the Princely States did not join. Dyarchy at the Centre was introduced but also did not come into effect due to the failure of the federation. However, the federation itself was the overarching concept that failed, leading to the non-implementation of central dyarchy as well. Provincial autonomy and bicameral legislatures in provinces were implemented. Option (b) is also a strong contender but (c) is the root cause of (b)'s non-implementation. UPSC often looks for the most fundamental non-implementation.
UPSC CSE Prelims 2018: Round Table Conferences Recommendations
With reference to the period of Indian freedom struggle, which of the following was/were recommended by the Round Table Conferences?
- Grant of provincial autonomy.
- Establishment of a Federation of India.
- Abolition of Dyarchy in Indian states.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 2 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Hint: The Round Table Conferences primarily discussed and agreed upon provincial autonomy and a federal structure for India. Dyarchy was abolished in provinces by the GoI Act 1935, not in princely states ("Indian states").
UPSC CSE Prelims 2012: Congress Ministries' Work (1937-39)
Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Congress ministries in the period of 1937-1939?
- They restored civil liberties to the people.
- They adopted certain agrarian reforms.
- They passed laws that curbed the powers of the Governors.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Hint: Congress ministries did restore civil liberties and undertake agrarian reforms. However, they were constrained by the Governors' powers and could not pass laws curbing them; rather, the Governors retained and sometimes used their special powers.
Mains Questions
UPSC CSE Mains 2019: GoI Act 1935 as "Point of No Return"
The Government of India Act, 1935, marked a point of no return in the history of constitutional development in India. Elucidate.
Direction:
Discuss how the Act introduced significant changes and became a foundational document for the future Indian Constitution, despite its criticisms. Mention key provisions like provincial autonomy, federal structure, and institutional developments (Federal Court, RBI) which influenced later developments. Acknowledge its limitations but emphasize its irreversible impact on constitutional thinking and political processes.
UPSC CSE Mains 2017: Congress Office Acceptance, Achievements & Limitations
Why did the Congress decide to accept office in the provinces in 1937? What were the main achievements and limitations of the Congress ministries?
Direction:
Explain the strategic reasons for accepting office (wrecking from within, demonstrating administrative capacity). Detail achievements like civil liberties, agrarian reforms, social welfare (Wardha scheme). Discuss limitations such as Governor's special powers, financial constraints, and internal contradictions. Also, mention the League's adverse reaction.
UPSC CSE Mains 2015: Internal Rift in Congress (1939)
Examine the causes and consequences of the internal rift in the Congress in 1939.
Direction:
Focus on the Tripuri Crisis. Causes: ideological differences between Bose and Gandhi/Right Wing (strategy, attitude towards WWII). Consequences: Bose's resignation, formation of Forward Bloc, weakening of the Left within Congress, Bose's independent path, further consolidation of Gandhian leadership, and the eventual impact on nationalist strategy.
Original MCQs for Prelims
Original MCQ 1: GoI Act, 1935 Provisions
Consider the following statements regarding the Government of India Act, 1935:
- It proposed an All-India Federation with compulsory accession for Princely States.
- It abolished dyarchy at the provincial level and introduced it at the Centre.
- The Act established the Reserve Bank of India to control currency and credit.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect because accession for Princely States was voluntary, not compulsory. Statement 2 is correct; dyarchy was abolished in provinces (provincial autonomy introduced) and proposed at the Centre. Statement 3 is correct; the RBI was indeed established in 1935 under the provisions of this Act.
Original MCQ 2: "Day of Deliverance"
With reference to the "Day of Deliverance" observed in 1939, which of the following statements is correct?
- (a) It was observed by the Indian National Congress to celebrate their victory in the 1937 elections.
- (b) It was called by Mahatma Gandhi to protest India's entry into World War II without consultation.
- (c) It was observed by the Muslim League to express relief at the resignation of Congress ministries.
- (d) It was a day of national mourning declared by the British Government after the Lahore Resolution.
Explanation: The "Day of Deliverance" was observed on December 22, 1939, by the Muslim League, upon the call of M.A. Jinnah, to celebrate the resignation of Congress ministries, which the League alleged had discriminated against Muslims.
Original Descriptive Questions for Mains
Original Q1: GoI Act 1935 - Reconciliation of Aspirations vs. Imperial Interests
"The Government of India Act, 1935, was a significant attempt by the British to reconcile Indian political aspirations with their imperial interests." Analyze this statement, highlighting how the Act attempted to achieve this balance and why it ultimately failed to satisfy Indian nationalists.
Key Points/Structure:
- Introduction: Briefly introduce the 1935 Act as a major constitutional development.
- Attempt to reconcile aspirations (concessions): Provincial Autonomy, Federal Structure (hinting unity), Increased Franchise, Indianization of administration (Federal Court, RBI).
- Preservation of Imperial Interests (why it failed nationalists): No Dominion Status, Governor's Discretionary Powers (undermining autonomy), Dyarchy at Centre/No True Responsible Govt (reserved crucial subjects), Federal Structure (designed to weaken nationalists via princely states), Communal Electorates (divide & rule), Financial Control.
- Conclusion: Summarize that while a shift, its fundamental design was to maintain British paramountcy, leading to outright rejection by nationalists.
Original Q2: Impact of Congress Rule (1937-39) on Communalism
Critically examine the impact of the 28 months of Congress rule (1937-1939) on the communal landscape of India.
Key Points/Structure:
- Introduction: Set context of Congress ministries post-1937 elections.
- Positive Impact (on communal landscape, limited): Aimed for inclusive governance, efforts towards Harijan uplift/social reforms to foster unity.
- Negative Impact/Exacerbation of Communalism:
- UP Coalition Controversy (deeply alienated League).
- Muslim League's Propaganda (Pirpur, Shareef, Fazlul Huq reports alleging "Congress tyranny").
- Symbolic Issues (e.g., 'Bande Mataram' misinterpretations).
- "Day of Deliverance" (solidified communal divide).
- League's Consolidation (provided platform to become sole representative, accelerating Pakistan demand).
- Conclusion: Argue that despite good intentions, Congress actions (or misinterpretations) & League's propaganda widened communal chasm, laying groundwork for Two-Nation Theory & partition.