Outbreak of World War II (September 1939)
The war in Europe had immediate and profound implications for India, directly impacting its political autonomy.
Unilateral Declaration of War
On September 3, 1939, Viceroy Lord Linlithgow declared India at war alongside Britain, without consulting Indian leaders or elected provincial governments. This highlighted India's subordinate status.
Congress Ministries Resign
In protest against the unilateral declaration and British refusal for immediate self-governance, Congress ministries in eight provinces resigned by Oct-Nov 1939. Muslim League observed a "Day of Deliverance."
Congress Stance on War
The Indian National Congress adopted a principled but conditional stance on supporting the war effort.
Anti-Fascist, Pro-Freedom
Congress leaders condemned Fascism and Nazism but asserted that a slave India could not fight for others' freedom. Demanded immediate independence and a genuine national government.
Ramgarh Session (1940)
Presided by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. Reiterated 'Purna Swaraj' (complete independence) and called for a Constituent Assembly elected by adult suffrage. Threatened Civil Disobedience if demands weren't met.
British Offers: Too Little, Too Late
The British government, focused on the war, was reluctant to make significant concessions, leading to continued stalemate.
August Offer (8 August 1940)
By Viceroy Lord Linlithgow
Proposals:
- Dominion Status as post-war objective (no timeframe).
- Expansion of Viceroy's Executive Council with more Indians.
- Establishment of a War Advisory Council.
- Minorities' views given "full weight" in future constitution (implicit veto for Muslim League).
Rejection:
- Congress: Rejected (too little, too late; Purna Swaraj was the goal; no immediate power).
- Muslim League: Welcomed minority veto but reiterated Pakistan demand.
Individual Satyagraha (Oct 1940 – Dec 1941)
A limited, non-violent protest initiated by Gandhi.
Aims:
- Affirm freedom of speech against war (preaching against participation).
- Show India's peaceful opposition to being dragged into war.
- Avoid hampering war effort massively (limited protest).
Key Figures & Impact:
- First Satyagrahi: Vinoba Bhave (Oct 17, 1940).
- Second Satyagrahi: Jawaharlal Nehru.
- Thousands arrested; successfully registered moral protest.
Japanese Threat and Shifting Tides of War
The entry of Japan into the war dramatically altered the strategic context for Britain and India.
Rapid Japanese Advance
Japan's entry (Dec 1941) and rapid expansion, including fall of Singapore (Feb 1942) and Rangoon (Mar 1942), brought Japanese forces to India's eastern borders.
Allied Pressure on Britain
USA (President Roosevelt) and China (Chiang Kai-shek) pressured Churchill to conciliate Indian nationalists, recognizing Indian support as crucial for the Allied war effort in Asia.
Cripps Mission (March-April 1942)
In response to the escalating war situation and Allied pressure, Sir Stafford Cripps was sent with new constitutional proposals.
Sir Stafford Cripps & His Proposals
A left-wing Labour member of the British War Cabinet, Sir Stafford Cripps, was sent to India in March 1942 to negotiate with Indian leaders.
Draft Declaration Proposals:
- Dominion Status for India after the war (with right to secede).
- Constituent Assembly after the war (elected by provincial assemblies, nominated by Princely States).
- Provincial Option to Secede: Any province could form a separate union.
- Interim Period: Viceroy's Executive Council reconstituted with more Indians; Defence retained by British.
Reasons for Failure (Rejection by All):
- Congress: "Post-dated cheque on a failing bank." Rejected Dominion Status, provincial secession (threat to unity), lack of immediate real power (esp. Defence).
- Muslim League: No explicit provision for Pakistan, rejected single Indian Union.
- Other Groups: Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals, Sikhs, Depressed Classes also had reservations.
Outcome of Cripps Mission
Sir Stafford Cripps returned empty-handed in April 1942. The failure significantly increased frustration and anti-British sentiment, convincing many that British were insincere about independence. This directly paved the way for the Quit India Movement.
Summary Table: Key Events & Responses
| Event/Policy | Year(s) | Key Aspects/Provisions | Indian Response/Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Outbreak of WWII | Sep 1939 | India declared belligerent by Linlithgow without consultation. | Congress Ministries resigned (Oct-Nov 1939). Muslim League observed "Day of Deliverance." |
| Congress Stance on War | 1939-1940 | Condemned Fascism but refused cooperation without freedom. Ramgarh Session (1940) demanded Purna Swaraj. | Stalemate with British government. |
| August Offer | Aug 1940 | Dominion Status post-war, expanded Viceroy's Council, War Advisory Council, Indian constitution-making post-war (minority veto). | Rejected by Congress (too little, too late). Muslim League welcomed veto, reiterated Pakistan. |
| Individual Satyagraha | Oct 1940-Dec 1941 | Aim: Affirm freedom of speech against war, peaceful protest. First Satyagrahi: Vinoba Bhave, Second: Jawaharlal Nehru. | Thousands arrested. Registered protest without massively hampering war effort. |
| Japanese Threat & Allied Pressure | 1941-1942 | Japan's entry, rapid advance (Singapore, Rangoon). Japanese forces neared Indian borders. Pressure on Britain from USA, China. | Increased urgency for British to conciliate Indian nationalists. |
| Cripps Mission | Mar-Apr 1942 | Dominion Status post-war (right to secede), Constituent Assembly post-war, provincial option to secede, interim Indianised Viceroy's Council (Defence retained by British). | Failed. Congress rejected ("post-dated cheque," opposed secession, wanted immediate power). Muslim League rejected (no explicit Pakistan). Paved way for Quit India. |
Prelims-ready Notes
- Viceroy during WWII outbreak: Lord Linlithgow.
- Congress Ministries Resignation: October-November 1939 (due to unilateral declaration of war).
- Ramgarh Congress Session (1940): Presided by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad; demanded Purna Swaraj.
- August Offer (August 8, 1940): By Linlithgow. Proposed Dominion Status (post-war), expanded Viceroy's Council, War Advisory Council. Rejected by Congress.
- Individual Satyagraha (1940-41):
- First Satyagrahi: Vinoba Bhave.
- Second Satyagrahi: Jawaharlal Nehru.
- Aim: Affirm freedom of speech against war.
- Japanese Threat (1942): Fall of Singapore, Rangoon.
- Cripps Mission (March-April 1942): Led by Sir Stafford Cripps.
- Proposals: Dominion Status (post-war) with right to secede, Constituent Assembly (post-war), provincial option to secede, interim government (Defence with British).
- Gandhi's Comment: "A post-dated cheque on a failing bank."
- Reasons for Failure: Congress wanted immediate Purna Swaraj & real power transfer; Muslim League wanted explicit Pakistan.
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
The War as a Double-Edged Sword for Britain in India:
- Crucial for British war effort (resources, manpower), but exposed British vulnerabilities and moral contradictions.
- Fighting for democracy in Europe while denying it to India became untenable.
- Strained British resources, making long-term control harder.
Congress's Principled but Pragmatic Stance:
- Genuine anti-fascist stance, but refused unconditional cooperation.
- Principled stand: "Slave nation could not fight for others' freedom."
- Put moral pressure on British and Allies.
August Offer and Cripps Mission: Too Little, Too Late, Too Vague:
- Dominion Status was outdated; demand was Purna Swaraj.
- "After the war" promises met with skepticism.
- Implicit concessions to Pakistan (minority veto, provincial secession) seen as divisive.
- British reluctance to relinquish key powers (Defence) was a major sticking point.
The Significance of Individual Satyagraha:
- Kept non-violent resistance alive.
- Registered India's moral protest against forced participation.
- Demonstrated continued strong nationalist sentiment.
The Japanese Threat and its Impact on British Policy:
- Rapid Japanese advance posed direct military threat to India.
- Allied pressure (USA, China) forced Churchill to attempt conciliation (Cripps Mission).
- Highlighted external factors influencing British policy.
Contemporary Relevance/Significance/Impact:
- War and Colonialism: Global conflicts accelerate anti-colonial movements.
- Negotiation vs. Agitation: Highlights role of mass pressure in achieving goals.
- Seeds of Partition: British policies (Cripps Mission, August Offer) contributed to eventual partition.
- International Pressure: Role of international opinion in colonial matters.
Current Affairs & Developments
For a historical topic, direct "current affairs" are minimal, but connections can be made through:
- Declassification of WWII Documents: Offers new historical perspectives on British war aims or interactions.
- Historical Commemorations: Anniversaries of key events (e.g., Quit India Movement) lead to reflections.
- Legacy of Colonial Borders and Conflicts: Continues to shape geopolitical realities in South Asia.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
1. UPSC Prelims 2012
Q. The demand for ‘Swarajya’ or self-government for India was first articulated by:
- Dadabhai Naoroji
- M.K. Gandhi
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak
- Jawaharlal Nehru
Ans. (a)
Hint: Dadabhai Naoroji, in the 1906 Calcutta session, declared Swaraj as the INC's goal. By the WWII period, the demand had evolved to Purna Swaraj.
2. UPSC Prelims 2010
Q. With reference to the Indian freedom struggle, consider the following events:
- Mutiny in Royal Indian Navy
- Quit India Movement launched
- Second Round Table Conference
Which of the following is the correct chronological sequence of the above events?
- 1-2-3
- 2-1-3
- 3-2-1
- 3-1-2
Ans. (c)
Hint: Second RTC (1931) -> Quit India (1942) -> RIN Mutiny (1946). The Cripps Mission directly preceded the Quit India Movement.
1. UPSC Mains 2017
Q. Why did the ‘moderates’ fail to carry conviction with the nation about their proclaimed political objectives?
Direction: While about Moderates, the political climate leading to WWII and the failure of British offers like Cripps Mission further vindicated the Extremist and Gandhian critique that mere petitions or limited cooperation wouldn't suffice.
2. UPSC Mains 2018
Q. Throw light on the significance of the thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi in the present times.
Direction: Gandhi's stance during WWII (opposing Fascism but demanding India's freedom first) and his leadership in launching Individual Satyagraha and later Quit India Movement are crucial aspects of his political thought in action.
3. UPSC Mains 2016
Q. The Cripps Mission is seen as a significant milestone in India's struggle for independence. Critically analyze its proposals and the reasons for its failure.
Direction:
- Proposals: Detail Dominion Status, Constituent Assembly, provincial option to secede, interim government with Defence retained by British.
- Reasons for Failure: From Congress ("Post-dated cheque," opposed Dominion Status, secession, wanted immediate power), Muslim League (no explicit Pakistan), and other groups.
- Significance: Acknowledged India's right to constitution, but failure directly led to Quit India Movement.
Original MCQs for Prelims
1. Q. The August Offer of 1940, made by Lord Linlithgow, included which of the following proposals?
- Immediate grant of Purna Swaraj to India.
- Expansion of the Viceroy's Executive Council to include more Indians.
- Setting up a Constituent Assembly after the war, composed entirely of elected Indian representatives.
- An assurance that full weight would be given to the views of minorities in any future constitution.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
- 1 and 3 only
- 2 and 4 only
- 1, 2 and 3 only
- 2, 3 and 4 only
Ans. (b)
Explanation: The August Offer proposed Dominion Status, not Purna Swaraj (1 is incorrect). It did propose a Constituent Assembly after the war, but it was to be mainly composed of Indians, implying some British role or princely nomination, not entirely elected Indian representatives (so 3 is not fully accurate as stated). It did propose expansion of the Viceroy's Council (2) and gave an implicit veto to minorities (4).
2. Q. Mahatma Gandhi described the Cripps Mission proposals as a "post-dated cheque on a failing bank" primarily because:
- The proposals offered Dominion Status, which was no longer acceptable to the Congress.
- The right of provinces to secede threatened national unity.
- There was no provision for the immediate transfer of the Defence portfolio to Indian hands.
- All of the above reasons contributed to this assessment.
Ans. (d)
Explanation: Gandhi's "post-dated cheque" comment encapsulated several criticisms: the promises were for the future (post-dated), on a bank (British Empire) whose future was uncertain due to the war (failing bank). All the listed reasons (Dominion Status instead of Purna Swaraj, the secession clause, and lack of immediate real power transfer, especially Defence) were major objections of the Congress and contributed to this strong rejection.
Original Descriptive Questions for Mains
1. Q. "The failure of the Cripps Mission in 1942 was a turning point, convincing the Indian National Congress that the British government was unwilling to grant genuine independence, thereby paving the way for the Quit India Movement." Discuss.
Hints/Structure:
- Introduction: Briefly set the context of WWII, Japanese threat, and the Cripps Mission.
- Cripps Mission Proposals: Outline the key offers.
- Reasons for Congress Rejection: "Post-dated cheque," Dominion Status vs. Purna Swaraj, opposition to provincial secession, lack of control over Defence.
- Conviction of British Unwillingness: Failure reinforced belief only mass struggle would work; Gandhi's shift.
- Paving the Way for Quit India Movement: Increased frustration, urgency due to Japanese threat, Gandhi's call for "Do or Die."
- Conclusion: Summarize Cripps Mission as a critical turning point that exhausted negotiations and led to Quit India.
2. Q. Analyze the British government's motivations behind the August Offer (1940) and the Cripps Mission (1942). To what extent did these initiatives reflect a genuine desire to address Indian nationalist aspirations?
Hints/Structure:
- Introduction: Introduce both offers as British attempts to secure Indian cooperation during WWII.
- Motivations (August Offer): Securing war cooperation, placating moderates, countering Axis propaganda.
- Motivations (Cripps Mission): Intensified war situation (Japanese threat), Allied pressure (USA, China), need for Indian support, appeasing domestic critics.
- Extent of Genuine Desire (Critical Analysis): Limited concessions (Dominion Status, not independence), imperial interests paramount, vagueness and procrastination, maintenance of control (Defence, secession clause).
- Conclusion: Offers were strategic moves for wartime cooperation/imperial management, not genuine desire to meet core nationalist demands.