The Unconventional Path to Freedom
Subhas Chandra Bose, a charismatic and radical nationalist leader, played a pivotal role in India's freedom struggle, particularly during its final phase. His path diverged from the mainstream Congress ideology, leading him to seek foreign assistance during World War II to liberate India.
The formation and exploits of the Indian National Army (INA), under his leadership, and the subsequent RIN Mutiny, significantly undermined British authority and accelerated India's independence. These events highlighted the potent combination of external armed struggle and internal dissent in challenging colonial rule.
Subhas Chandra Bose: The Dissenting Leader
Break from Congress
Ideological Differences with Gandhi
- Bose advocated militant approach and complete independence without compromise.
- Gandhi emphasized non-violent satyagraha and was open to Dominion Status initially.
- Bose favored centralized planning vs. Gandhi's village self-sufficiency.
Tripuri & Forward Bloc
- Tripuri Congress (1939): Re-elected President, defeating Gandhi's candidate.
- Resignation: Forced to resign in April 1939 due to CWC non-cooperation.
- Forward Bloc (May 1939): Formed to rally radical anti-imperialist elements.
- Objected to Congress's conditional support to British during WWII.
The Great Escape & International Pursuits
Disguised as Muhammad Ziauddin, a Pathan, Bose escaped from house arrest in Calcutta. He travelled through Peshawar and Kabul, securing an Italian passport.
Reached Berlin after a journey via Afghanistan and the Soviet Union. Sought Axis support for India's liberation.
Established 'Free India Centre' in Berlin, broadcasted to India via 'Azad Hind Radio'. Formed the 'Indian Legion' from Indian POWs. Met Hitler but became disillusioned with German support.
Recognizing limitations in Germany, he embarked on a perilous submarine journey (German U-boat to Japanese submarine) to Southeast Asia, arriving in Sabang (Sumatra) then Tokyo.
The Azad Hind Fauj Takes Shape
Origins of INA
Formed from Indian POWs captured by Japanese in Malaya and Singapore after the Fall of Singapore (Feb 1942).
- Major Fujiwara (Japanese) persuaded Capt. Mohan Singh to form the 1st INA (Sept 1942).
- Differences with Japanese led to its dissolution (Dec 1942).
Role of Rash Behari Bose
Veteran Indian revolutionary living in exile in Japan.
- Formed 'Indian Independence League' (IIL) to mobilize diaspora.
- Organized Tokyo & Bangkok Conferences (1942), where SC Bose was invited to lead.
Netaji Takes Command
- Subhas Bose arrived in Singapore in July 1943.
- Rash Behari Bose handed over leadership of IIL and INA.
- Subhas Bose was hailed as "Netaji" (Respected Leader) and revitalized the INA (Azad Hind Fauj).
Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind Sarkar)
Established on October 21, 1943, in Singapore. Netaji became the Head of State, Prime Minister, and Minister of War.
Declared war on Britain and the USA. Recognized by Axis powers (Japan, Germany, Italy, Thailand, Burma, Croatia, Manchukuo, Philippines).
INA Brigades & Slogans
Key Brigades
- Subhas Brigade (under Shah Nawaz Khan)
- Gandhi Brigade (under Inayat Kiani)
- Azad Brigade (under Gulzara Singh)
- Nehru Brigade (under Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon)
Rani Jhansi Regiment
An all-women combat regiment, led by Captain Lakshmi Swaminathan (later Sahgal). A pioneering step for women's role in armed forces.
Inspiring Slogans
- "Jai Hind" (Victory to India) - official greeting.
- "Delhi Chalo" (Onwards to Delhi) - war cry.
- "Tum mujhe khoon do, main tumhe azadi dunga" (Give me blood, and I shall give you freedom).
INA's March: Campaigns & Challenges
Key Campaigns and Japanese Support
Japan handed over administration of Andaman and Nicobar Islands to Provisional Government. Netaji visited and renamed Andaman as Shaheed Dweep and Nicobar as Swaraj Dweep.
The INA headquarters was shifted to Rangoon (Yangon) in Burma, closer to the Indian border, in preparation for the advance.
The INA, along with the Japanese Fifteenth Army, participated in the offensive against British India on the Indo-Burma front. This was the main thrust of the "Delhi Chalo" campaign.
INA forces, led by Col. Shaukat Ali Malik, captured Moirang in Manipur and hoisted the Tricolour, marking a symbolic entry onto Indian soil.
Challenges Faced by INA
Logistical Nightmare
Poor supply lines, insufficient rations, inadequate medical support severely hampered INA operations.
Harsh Terrain & Monsoon
Mountainous terrain and the early onset of heavy monsoons during the campaign led to movement difficulties and widespread diseases.
Allied Superiority
The Allied forces possessed overwhelming air superiority and were better-equipped, outmatching the INA and Japanese.
Weakening Japanese Position
Japanese military was suffering defeats on other fronts, diverting resources and attention, and prioritizing their own troops over INA soldiers for supplies.
Eventual Defeat
The Imphal-Kohima campaign ended in a disastrous defeat for the Japanese and the INA. The retreat was arduous, with heavy casualties due to starvation, disease, and enemy action. By mid-1945, the INA had effectively ceased to be a fighting force.
Netaji's Mysterious End
Alleged Disappearance/Death
After Japan's surrender in August 1945, Netaji reportedly left Saigon for Manchuria. It is officially stated that he died in a plane crash at Taihoku (Taipei), Taiwan, on August 18, 1945.
Controversies Persist:
- Several inquiry commissions have investigated his death. While the first three (Figgess, Shah Nawaz, Khosla) largely upheld the crash theory, the Mukherjee Commission (2005) concluded that Bose did not die in the plane crash.
- The Government of India did not accept the findings of the Mukherjee Commission.
- Declassified files by the Indian government in recent years have provided more documents but haven't definitively settled the controversy for all.
The Red Fort Trials: A Nation's Outcry
The Accused & Their Symbolism
The British decided to court-martial INA personnel for treason. The first and most famous trial was of three officers at the Red Fort:
- Col. Prem Kumar Sahgal (Hindu)
- Col. Shah Nawaz Khan (Muslim)
- Col. Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon (Sikh)
Their joint trial symbolized the communal harmony and unity prevalent in the INA, contrasting with growing communal tensions.
Nationwide Protests & Defence
The trials evoked unprecedented public outrage, demonstrations, and hartals across India. The slogan "Lal Qile se aaee awaz, Sahgal, Dhillon, Shah Nawaz" became popular.
Defence Lawyers:
- Bhulabhai Desai (chief counsel)
- Jawaharlal Nehru (donned barrister's gown after decades)
- Tej Bahadur Sapru
- K.N. Katju (Asaf Ali also played a role).
Bhulabhai Desai passionately argued that INA soldiers fought for their country's freedom under a legitimate provisional government.
Outcome & Significance
The three officers were convicted of "waging war against the King-Emperor."
However, due to overwhelming public anger and potential unrest within the Indian Army, Viceroy Lord Wavell commuted their sentences of transportation for life. They were eventually released.
This was a significant political victory for the nationalist movement, demonstrating British weakness in the face of united public pressure.
The Enduring Impact of INA & Netaji
Patriotism & Unity
The INA, despite military failures, symbolized immense patriotism and sacrifice. It showcased remarkable inter-communal unity and women's empowerment (Rani Jhansi Regiment).
Nationalist Fervour
Stories of INA's heroism and Netaji's leadership, publicized during trials, electrified the nation and boosted nationalist morale, especially after the Quit India Movement.
Impact on Armed Forces Loyalty & British Decision
The INA trials severely eroded the loyalty of the British Indian armed forces, a crucial pillar of British rule. This realization, coupled with other factors (like the RIN Mutiny), hastened the British decision to transfer power. Clement Attlee later cited this as a key factor.
The Final Spark: Royal Indian Navy Mutiny
Causes & Immediate Trigger
Long-standing grievances: Racial discrimination, poor food, low pay, slow demobilization, mistreatment.
Inspiration: INA trials and Quit India Movement spirit influenced ratings.
Immediate Trigger:
- Ratings of HMIS Talwar (Bombay) hunger strike on Feb 18, 1946.
- Protesting poor food and racial slurs by British officers.
Spread & Unity
Mutiny spread rapidly to 78 ships and 20 shore establishments (20,000+ ratings).
Key centers: Bombay, Karachi, Calcutta, Madras, Cochin, Vizag. Sympathetic strikes by RIAF & some Army personnel. Massive civilian general strike in Bombay (Feb 22).
Symbolic Acts:
- Mutineers replaced British flags with Congress, Muslim League, and Communist flags hoisted together.
- Slogans: "Jai Hind," "Inquilab Zindabad," "Release INA prisoners."
Formed Naval Central Strike Committee (M.S. Khan as President, Madan Singh as VP).
Intervention & Significance
British authorities responded with severe repression. Fearing bloodshed, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (Congress) and Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Muslim League) advised ratings to surrender, assuring their grievances would be addressed. Ratings surrendered on Feb 23, 1946.
Significance:
- "Final Nail in the Coffin": Demonstrated British could no longer rely on Indian armed forces, shattering military loyalty.
- Impact on British Policy: Reinforced realization that holding India was untenable. Occurred just before Cabinet Mission announcement.
- Showcased Unity: Displayed remarkable communal unity among ratings, cutting across religious/regional lines.
- Highlighted limits of spontaneous uprisings without organized political leadership.
Summary: Key Milestones & Impact
Table 1: Subhas Chandra Bose – Key Milestones
| Year | Event | Location |
|---|---|---|
| 1939 | Resigned as Congress President, Formed Forward Bloc | India |
| 1941 | Escaped India, Reached Germany | India to Germany |
| 1941-43 | Free India Centre, Indian Legion, Broadcasts | Germany |
| 1943 | Journey to SE Asia, Took command of INA & IIL | Germany to Singapore |
| Oct 1943 | Formed Provisional Govt. of Free India (Azad Hind Sarkar) | Singapore |
| Dec 1943 | Renamed Andaman & Nicobar Islands | Andaman |
| 1944 | INA's Imphal Campaign, Flag hoisting at Moirang | Indo-Burma front |
| Aug 1945 | Alleged death in plane crash | Taiwan |
Table 2: INA & RIN Mutiny – A Snapshot
| Event | Key Figures | Key Outcomes/Significance |
|---|---|---|
| INA | SC Bose, Mohan Singh, Rash Behari Bose, Lakshmi Sahgal | Formed from POWs, fought alongside Japanese, Imphal campaign, inspired nationalism, INA Trials. |
| INA Trials | Sahgal, Dhillon, Shah Nawaz; Bhulabhai Desai, Nehru | Massive public support, sentences commuted, highlighted INA's patriotism & communal harmony. |
| RIN Mutiny | M.S. Khan, Madan Singh; Sardar Patel, M.A. Jinnah | Protest by naval ratings, spread widely, showed erosion of British military control, hastened independence. |
Consolidating Knowledge: UPSC Notes
- Subhas Chandra Bose:
- Resigned Congress Presidency: 1939 (Tripuri)
- Forward Bloc formed: May 1939
- Escape from India: Jan 1941
- Reached Germany: April 1941
- Free India Centre: Berlin
- Indian Legion: Formed in Germany
- Journey to SE Asia: Feb-May 1943 (German U-boat, then Japanese I-boat)
- Provisional Govt. of Free India (Azad Hind Sarkar): Oct 21, 1943, Singapore
- Andaman & Nicobar renamed: Shaheed & Swaraj Dweep (Dec 1943)
- Slogans: "Jai Hind," "Delhi Chalo," "Tum mujhe khoon do..."
- Alleged Death: Aug 18, 1945, Taiwan plane crash.
- Indian National Army (INA):
- Initial idea: Major Fujiwara Iwaichi (Japanese)
- First INA by Capt. Mohan Singh (Sept 1942), later disbanded (Dec 1942)
- Role of Rash Behari Bose: Indian Independence League (IIL), invited SC Bose.
- INA Brigades: Gandhi, Nehru, Azad, Subhas.
- Women's Regiment: Rani Jhansi Regiment (Capt. Lakshmi Swaminathan/Sahgal)
- Campaign: Imphal-Kohima (1944)
- Flag Hoisting in India: Moirang, Manipur (April 14, 1944) by Col. Shaukat Ali Malik.
- INA Trials (Red Fort Trials):
- When: Nov 1945 – Feb 1946
- Accused (first trial): Col. P.K. Sahgal, Col. Shah Nawaz Khan, Col. G.S. Dhillon.
- Defence Lawyers: Bhulabhai Desai (chief), Nehru, Sapru, Katju.
- Outcome: Convicted, sentences commuted by Viceroy Wavell.
- RIN Mutiny:
- When: Feb 18-23, 1946
- Started at: HMIS Talwar, Bombay
- Key Demands: Better food/conditions, release of INA prisoners, equal pay.
- Spread: 78 ships, 20 shore units, ~20,000 ratings.
- Leaders: M.S. Khan (President, Naval Central Strike Committee), Madan Singh (VP).
- Surrender: On advice of Sardar Patel and M.A. Jinnah.
- Significance: Eroded British control over armed forces, expedited transfer of power.
Major Debates/Discussions:
- Bose's methods vs. Gandhian non-violence:
- Pro-Bose Argument: Non-violence had limitations; direct action and seeking external help were necessary. His approach was pragmatic.
- Pro-Gandhi Argument: Means are as important as ends. Alliance with fascist powers was morally compromised. Non-violence built mass consciousness.
- Synthesis: Both approaches, though different, contributed to the weakening of British resolve.
- Impact of INA – Military failure but political success?
- Military Perspective: Campaigns were largely unsuccessful due to logistical issues, Japanese priorities.
- Political Perspective: INA trials galvanized nationalist sentiment, showcased communal harmony, and crucially, shook the loyalty of British Indian armed forces.
- Role of RIN Mutiny:
- Often seen as the "last nail in the coffin" of British rule, demonstrating the untenability of control over forces.
- Congress and League leaders were wary of uncontrolled upsurges, advising surrender, highlighting divergence between popular sentiment and leadership strategies.
Historical/Long-term Trends, Continuity & Changes:
- Continuity of Revolutionary Nationalism: Bose's actions seen as continuation of armed struggle tradition, but on larger, international scale.
- Changing Nature of British Weakness: WW2 critically weakened Britain, making empire harder to sustain. Bose exploited this.
- Erosion of Loyalty in Armed Forces: INA and RIN Mutiny represented a qualitatively different challenge from earlier discontent.
- Communal Harmony vs. Division: INA presented a strong model of inter-faith unity, contrasting with growing communal divide.
Contemporary Relevance/Significance/Impact:
- Legacy of Subhas Chandra Bose: Highly revered figure; emphasis on strong leadership, national unity, proactive foreign policy inspires.
- Military Ethos and Patriotism: INA's story invoked to instill duty.
- Civil-Military Relations: Trials and mutiny underscore importance of apolitical armed forces.
- Communal Harmony: INA's example of unity often cited.
Real-world/Data-backed Recent Examples:
- Declassification of Netaji Files: Indian government declassified numerous files promoting research.
- Commemoration of Netaji: Parakram Diwas (Jan 23) celebrations; Netaji Statue at India Gate (Sept 2022); Renaming of Islands (e.g., Ross Island to Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Dweep).
- Celebration of INA Veterans: Occasional felicitation and recognition.
- Netaji Statue at India Gate (September 2022): A 28-feet tall jet black granite statue of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was unveiled at India Gate, New Delhi. This replaced a hologram statue that was inaugurated earlier on Parakram Diwas (January 23, 2022). This fulfills a long-standing demand and accords him a prominent place in the national capital's symbolic landscape. (Source: PIB, The Hindu)
- Parakram Diwas Celebrations (January 23, annually): The government continues to celebrate Netaji's birth anniversary as Parakram Diwas with various events across the country, including in Andaman & Nicobar Islands, to honor his contribution and inspire youth. In January 2023, as part of Parakram Diwas, PM Modi named 21 unnamed islands of Andaman & Nicobar Islands after Param Vir Chakra awardees. (Source: PIB, Jan 23, 2023)
- Digital Initiatives: The National Archives of India has digitized and made available numerous files related to Netaji and the INA on its portal netajipapers.gov.in, promoting research and public access.
- Discussions on Curriculum: There are ongoing discussions and efforts to give greater prominence to figures like Subhas Chandra Bose and events like the INA's struggle in school and college curricula. (Various media reports and policy discussions)
UPSC Previous Year Questions
1. PYQ (UPSC CSE 2005):
Q. Who among the following was associated with the August Offer?
- (a) Lord Wavell
- (b) Lord Irwin
- (c) Lord Linlithgow
- (d) Lord Mountbatten
Answer: (c)
Hint: The August Offer (1940) was made during Linlithgow's viceroyalty. Subhas Chandra Bose had already resigned from Congress and was under arrest around this period, opposing Congress's stance on the war, which the August Offer tried to address.
2. PYQ (UPSC CSE Pre-1990s, often repeated in other exams):
Q. The Indian National Army (INA) came into existence in 1943 in:
- (a) Japan
- (b) Then Burma
- (c) Singapore
- (d) Then Malaya
Answer: (c)
Hint: While initial activities happened in Malaya and Japan played a role, Subhas Chandra Bose formally took command and revived the INA in Singapore in July 1943, and the Provisional Government was also formed there in October 1943.
3. PYQ (UPSC CSE 1995):
Q. The song ‘Kadam Kadam Badhaye Ja’ was the regimental quick march of which of the following?
- (a) The Ghadar Party
- (b) The Indian National Army
- (c) The Prarthana Samaj
- (d) The Anushilan Samiti
Answer: (b)
Hint: This was a popular marching song of the INA, composed by Ram Singh Thakuri.
1. PYQ (UPSC CSE 2016):
Q. Highlight the differences in the approach of Subhas Chandra Bose and Mahatma Gandhi in the struggle for freedom. (12.5 marks, 200 words)
Direction/Value Points: Introduction: Briefly introduce both leaders and their common goal of independence but differing paths. Ideology: Non-violence (Gandhi) vs. Militant approach, seeking external armed help (Bose). Means: Satyagraha, constructive program (Gandhi) vs. Alliances with Axis powers, military action (Bose). View on WW2: Conditional support or non-cooperation (Gandhi/Congress) vs. Exploiting Britain's difficulty (Bose). Economic Vision: Decentralized (Gandhi) vs. Centralized planning (Bose). Role of Masses: Mass mobilization through non-violent action (Gandhi) vs. Elite-led military action (Bose). Conclusion: Despite differences, both contributed, with Bose's actions having major psychological impact.
2. PYQ (UPSC CSE, adapted):
Q. Discuss the contribution of Subhas Chandra Bose and the INA to India's independence. How did the INA trials affect the Indian political scene? (15 marks, 250 words)
Direction/Value Points: Introduction: Briefly state Bose's role and INA's formation. Bose's Contributions: Escape, organizing Indians abroad, seeking international support, leadership. INA's Contributions: Military campaigns, symbolism of armed resistance, communal harmony, Rani Jhansi Regiment. Impact of INA Trials: Massive public upsurge, united groups, exposed patriotic motives, shook British Indian Army loyalty, forced commutation, a moral victory. Overall Impact on Independence: While not militarily decisive, INA and trials significantly weakened British morale and control. Conclusion: Reiterate their crucial role.
3. PYQ (UPSC CSE, adapted):
Q. Analyze the significance of the RIN Mutiny in the context of the Indian freedom struggle. Do you think it accelerated the process of British withdrawal from India? (10 marks, 150 words)
Direction/Value Points: Introduction: Briefly describe RIN Mutiny. Significance: Demonstrated erosion of loyalty in armed forces, showcased popular discontent and unity, inspired by INA trials, occurred when negotiations were imminent. Acceleration of British Withdrawal: Yes, strongly indicated British could no longer rely on Indian forces. Combined with post-WW2 exhaustion and INA impact, made holding India untenable. Attlee reportedly acknowledged. Conclusion: RIN Mutiny was powerful signal, expediting transfer of power.
Original Practice Questions
1. Q. Consider the following statements regarding Subhas Chandra Bose's activities during World War II:
- He established the Provisional Government of Free India in Berlin with the help of Hitler.
- The Rani Jhansi Regiment of the INA was an all-women combat unit led by Captain Lakshmi Swaminathan.
- The INA, under Bose's command, successfully captured Delhi during its "Delhi Chalo" march.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b)
Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect: The Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind Sarkar) was formed in Singapore in October 1943, not Berlin. Statement 2 is correct. Statement 3 is incorrect: The INA advanced into Indian territory (Moirang, Manipur), but did not capture Delhi.
2. Q. Arrange the following events in the life of Subhas Chandra Bose in chronological order:
- Escape from house arrest in Calcutta.
- Formation of the Forward Bloc.
- Taking command of the Indian National Army in Singapore.
- Presiding over the Haripura Congress Session.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
- (a) 4, 2, 1, 3
- (b) 2, 4, 1, 3
- (c) 4, 1, 2, 3
- (d) 2, 1, 4, 3
Answer: (a)
Explanation: Haripura Congress (1938) -> Forward Bloc (May 1939) -> Escape from India (Jan 1941) -> Taking command of INA (July 1943).
3. Q. The RIN Mutiny of 1946 was triggered by protests primarily concerning:
- Demand for immediate independence from British rule.
- Racial discrimination and poor service conditions for Indian ratings.
- Opposition to the deployment of Indian troops in Indonesia.
- Solidarity with the INA prisoners undergoing trial.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
- (a) 1 and 4 only
- (b) 2 only
- (c) 2, 3 and 4 only
- (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (b)
Explanation: The immediate trigger and primary cause of the initial protest at HMIS Talwar was racial discrimination, insults by British officers, and poor food/service conditions. While other demands were later added, the question asks for what primarily triggered the protests.
1. Q. "Subhas Chandra Bose's alliance with Axis powers was a pragmatic, albeit controversial, strategy aimed at India's liberation. Critically evaluate this statement, considering the geopolitical context of World War II and the ethical dilemmas involved." (15 marks, 250 words)
Value Hints/Structure for Answering: Introduction: Acknowledge Bose's patriotism and the context of seeking external help, mentioning the controversial nature of the Axis alliance. Arguments for Pragmatism: "Enemy's enemy is a friend" principle; Britain's wartime vulnerability as unique opportunity; limited options for armed struggle; Bose's belief in direct action; efforts to maintain INA's autonomy. Arguments for Controversy/Ethical Dilemmas: Axis powers were fascist, imperialist, responsible for atrocities; risk of replacing one imperialism with another; contradiction with India's democratic ideals; Hitler's views and lack of genuine commitment. Geopolitical Context: Global conflict, weakening of colonial powers, Japanese advances making SE Asia viable. Critical Evaluation: Weigh arguments, discuss if benefits outweighed costs. Conclusion: Summarize by stating patriotism is undeniable, but strategy remains complex, reflecting difficult choices faced by freedom fighters, yet contributed psychologically.
2. Q. The INA trials and the RIN Mutiny, though distinct events, collectively exposed the crumbling foundations of British authority in India. Elucidate how these two episodes contributed to the hastening of India's independence. (15 marks, 250 words)
Value Hints/Structure for Answering: Introduction: Briefly introduce INA trials (1945-46) and RIN Mutiny (Feb 1946) as key events. INA Trials - Impact: Psychological blow (patriotic sentiment); erosion of military loyalty (indirect); nationalist upsurge; forced British hand (commutation). RIN Mutiny - Impact: Direct challenge to military control; spread of discontent; loss of "Steel Frame" (British reliance on Indian forces); timing (before Cabinet Mission). Collective Contribution to Hastening Independence: Demonstrated untenability of rule (instruments of power no longer reliable); boosted nationalist morale; influenced British calculations (costly/risky); highlighted "Quit India" sentiment permeated armed forces. Conclusion: Reiterate that these were crucial catalysts undermining British power and accelerating transfer of power.