Geography Syllabus Explorer

Origin and Evolution of the Earth

Theories:

• Big Bang
• Nebular Hypothesis
• Planetesimal
• Gaseous Tidal
• Protoplanet

Age of the Earth

Evolution of Atmosphere and Hydrosphere

Earth's Interior

Sources of Information:

• Direct
• Indirect

Seismic Waves:

• P waves
• S waves
• L waves

Structure:

• Crust (and its sub-divisions)
• Mantle (and its sub-divisions)
• Core (and its sub-divisions)

Discontinuities:

• Mohorovicic
• Gutenberg, etc.

Earth's Magnetosphere & Geomagnetism

• Dynamo Theory
• Magnetic Poles
• Reversals
• Van Allen Belts

Geomorphic Processes & Movements

Endogenic Processes

• Diastrophism: Orogenic (Mountain Building), Epeirogenic (Continental Building)
• Sudden Movements: Earthquakes, Volcanoes

Exogenic Processes

• Denudation: Weathering, Mass Wasting, Erosion, Deposition
• Agents of Gradation: Running Water, Groundwater, Glaciers, Wind, Waves

Distribution of Oceans and Continents

Theories:

• Continental Drift Theory (Wegener)
• Convectional Current Theory

Plate Tectonics

Concept of Lithospheric Plates (Major and Minor)

Mechanism of Plate Movement:

• Convection Currents
• Ridge Push
• Slab Pull

Plate Boundaries:

• Convergent (Ocean-Ocean, Ocean-Continent, Continent-Continent)
• Divergent (Seafloor Spreading, Mid-Oceanic Ridges, Rift Valleys)
• Transform

Associated Phenomena:

• Earthquakes
• Volcanoes
• Mountain Building

Earthquakes

Causes, Types (based on focus depth)

Measurement (Richter, Mercalli)

Distribution (Seismic Zones of India and World)

Effects and Management

Tsunami: Mechanism, Effects, Warning Systems

Volcanism

Causes and Types of Volcanoes (Active, Dormant, Extinct)

Lava Types (Acidic, Basic)

Volcanic Landforms:

• Intrusive (Batholith, Laccolith, Sill, Dyke, Lopolith, Phacolith)
• Extrusive (Shield, Cinder, Composite, Caldera, Lava Plateaus)

Distribution (Pacific Ring of Fire, Mid-Atlantic Ridge)

Hotspots and Mantle Plumes

Geysers and Hot Springs

Rocks and Rock Cycle

Types: Igneous, Sedimentary, Metamorphic (Characteristics and Examples)

Rock Cycle

Landforms and their Evolution

• Fluvial Landforms (Valleys, Gorges, Canyons, Potholes, Waterfalls, Meanders, Ox-bow lakes, Floodplains, Deltas, Alluvial Fans)
• Karst Landforms (Sinkholes, Caves, Stalactites, Stalagmites)
• Glacial Landforms (Cirque, Arete, Horn, U-shaped valley, Moraines, Drumlins, Eskers)
• Arid/Aeolian Landforms (Pediments, Playas, Deflation Hollows, Mushroom Rocks, Sand Dunes: Barchans, Seifs)
• Coastal Landforms (Cliffs, Sea Caves, Arches, Stacks, Beaches, Spits, Bars, Lagoons)

Lake Formation and Types

Plateaus: Types and Significance

Geological Time Scale & Rock Systems of India

• Archaean, Dharwar, Cuddapah, Vindhyan, Gondwana, Deccan Traps, Tertiary, Quaternary.

Earth's Atmosphere

Composition and Structure:

• Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere, Exosphere

Difference between Weather and Climate

Solar Radiation, Heat Budget, and Temperature

Insolation and Factors Affecting its Distribution

Heat Budget of the Earth

Temperature:

• Factors controlling distribution
• Horizontal and Vertical Distribution

Temperature Inversion

Atmospheric Pressure and Winds

Pressure Belts:

• Equatorial Low, Subtropical Highs, Subpolar Lows, Polar Highs

Factors Affecting Winds:

• Pressure Gradient, Coriolis Force, Friction

General Circulation of Atmosphere:

• Hadley, Ferrel, Polar Cells

Planetary Winds:

• Trade Winds, Westerlies, Polar Easterlies

Jet Streams: Types and Influence on Weather (including Indian Monsoon)

Local Winds (e.g., Loo, Foehn, Chinook, Mistral, Santa Ana)

Monsoons (Global Concept)

Humidity, Condensation, and Precipitation

Humidity: Absolute, Specific, Relative

Condensation: Forms (Dew, Frost, Fog, Mist, Smog)

Clouds: Types (Cirrus, Cumulus, Stratus, Nimbus, and combinations like Mammatus, Pyrocumulonimbus)

Precipitation: Forms (Rainfall, Snowfall, Sleet, Hail)

Types of Rainfall: Convectional, Orographic, Frontal/Cyclonic

Cloud Seeding

Air Masses and Fronts

Air Masses: Origin, Classification, and Modification

Fronts: Types (Warm, Cold, Stationary, Occluded) and Associated Weather

Cyclones and Anticyclones

Tropical Cyclones:

• Conditions for formation, Structure, Movement, Distribution, Naming conventions (e.g., Chido, Yagi)

Temperate Cyclones (Extra-Tropical Cyclones):

• Origin, Characteristics, Associated Weather

Anticyclones

Climatic Regions of the World (Koeppen's Classification)

• A, B, C, D, E, H types and their characteristics.

Climate Change

Causes (Natural and Anthropogenic)

Evidences and Impacts

Cryosphere and Climate Change (Melting Ice, Sea-level Rise, GLOFs - Glacial Lake Outburst Floods)

Specific Atmospheric Phenomena

• Auroras (Borealis and Australis)
• South Atlantic Anomaly
• Boreal Summer Intra-seasonal Oscillation (BSISO)
• MOSAiC Expedition
• Lake-Effect Snow
• Changes in Earth's Axis Tilt and its climatic implications

Ocean Relief

Major Relief Features:

• Continental Shelf, Slope, Rise, Abyssal Plains

Minor Relief Features:

• Mid-Oceanic Ridges, Seamounts, Guyots, Trenches, Canyons, Atolls, Banks, Shoals

Temperature and Salinity of Ocean Waters

Temperature: Factors affecting, Horizontal and Vertical Distribution (Thermocline)

Salinity: Factors affecting, Horizontal and Vertical Distribution (Halocline)

Density of Ocean Water (Pycnocline)

Movements of Ocean Water

Waves: Characteristics, Types (including Rogue Waves, Swell Waves)

Tides: Causes (Gravitational pull), Types (Spring, Neap), Tidal Bores, Importance

Ocean Currents:

• Forces (Primary and Secondary)
• Types (Warm and Cold)
• Major Ocean Currents (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian Oceans)
• Effects on Climate and Navigation

Water Masses

Ocean Deposits and Resources

Terrigenous and Pelagic Deposits

Mineral Resources: Polymetallic Nodules, Hydrothermal Vents, Petroleum & Natural Gas

Biotic Resources: Plankton, Nekton, Benthos, Fisheries

Energy Resources: Tidal, Wave, OTEC

Coral Reefs

Types: Fringing, Barrier, Atoll

Conditions for Growth

Distribution

Coral Bleaching: Causes and Consequences

Marine Pollution and Conservation

Sources and Impacts (Plastic, Oil Spills, Chemical pollutants)

Ocean Acidification

Dead Zones

Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions

• El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO): El Niño, La Niña, Walker Circulation
• Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)
• Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO)
• Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)

Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

• Territorial Waters, Contiguous Zone, Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), High Seas.

Specific Oceanographic Features/Regions

• Southern Ocean
• Marginal Seas (e.g., Baltic Sea, Caspian Sea, South China Sea)
• Lagoons (e.g., Khor Kalmat)

Soils

Soil Formation: Factors and Processes

Soil Profile

Soil Classification (Major types of the world and India: Alluvial, Black, Red, Laterite, Desert, Mountain, Peaty)

Soil Erosion and Conservation

Natural Vegetation

Factors influencing vegetation

Major Biomes of the World (Forests, Grasslands, Deserts, Tundra)

Forest Types of India (Tropical Evergreen, Deciduous, Thorn, Montane, Mangrove)

India State of Forest Report (ISFR) - Key findings of latest report.

Ecosystem and Ecology

Concept of Ecosystem, Food Chain, Food Web, Ecological Pyramids

Biogeochemical Cycles (Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus)

Biodiversity and its Conservation (Hotspots, Protected Areas)

Specific Ecosystems/Organisms in News

• Coelacanths
• Stromatolites
• Wetlands (e.g., Pantanal, Rann of Kutch, Sambhar Lake)
• Glaciers (e.g., Humboldt Glacier, ice calving, Halloween crack)

Population

Distribution and Density of Population: Factors influencing

Population Growth: Trends, Components (Birth, Death, Migration)

Theories of Population Growth (Malthus, Demographic Transition Model)

Population Composition: Age-Sex Pyramid, Rural-Urban, Literacy, Occupational Structure

Population Problems and Policies (World and India - NPP 2000)

Demographic Dividend

Human Development Index (HDI)

Migration

Types: Internal and International

Causes and Consequences (Push and Pull factors)

Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs)

Indian Diaspora

Human Settlements

Rural Settlements: Types and Patterns

Urban Settlements: Origin, Growth, Classification (Functional), Morphology

Urbanization: Trends, Problems (Slums, Pollution, Ghettoization, Urban Flooding), and Remedies

Smart Cities Mission, Sustainable Cities Program

Economic Activities

Primary Activities:

• Hunting and Gathering
• Pastoralism (Nomadic Herding, Commercial Livestock Rearing)
• Agriculture: Types (Subsistence, Commercial), Cooperative/Collective Farming, Issues in Indian Agriculture, Agro-based industries
• Mining: Types, Distribution (see Section VI)

Secondary Activities:

• Manufacturing Industries: Classification, Factors influencing location (Weber's theory), Major Industrial Regions (World & India), Specific Industries (Iron & Steel, Cotton Textile, etc.), Industrial Corridors

Tertiary Activities:

• Trade, Transport, Communication, Services, Significance of Service Sector

Quaternary and Quinary Activities:

• Knowledge-based industries, research, decision-making.

Transport, Communication, and Trade

Land Transport: Roads, Railways, Pipelines

Water Transport: Inland Waterways, Oceanic Routes (Major ports, shipping canals e.g. Panama Canal)

Air Transport: Advantages, disadvantages, major air routes

Communication: Satellite, Internet

International Trade: Basis, Types, Balance of Trade, WTO, Regional Trade Blocs (e.g., ASEAN, EU)

Land Resources

Land Use Pattern and its Changing Trends

Land Capability Classification

Land Degradation and Conservation (UNCCD)

Water Resources

Distribution, Utilization, Scarcity

Water Resource Management: Rainwater Harvesting, Watershed Management, Micro-irrigation

Inter-linking of Rivers (Pros and Cons, e.g., Ken-Betwa, Wainganga-Nalganga)

Water Pollution and Conservation

National Water Policy, Dam Safety Act

Mineral Resources

Types: Metallic (Ferrous, Non-ferrous), Non-Metallic (Mica, Limestone, etc.)

Distribution in India and World

Conservation of Minerals

National Mineral Policy

Energy Resources

Conventional:

• Coal: Types, Distribution, Problems
• Petroleum & Natural Gas: Formation, Distribution, Gas-based economy
• Hydroelectricity (e.g., Upper Siang, Ratle)

Non-Conventional:

• Solar Energy (International Solar Alliance)
• Wind Energy (Offshore Wind Policy)
• Tidal Energy, Geothermal Energy, Biogas, Biofuel
• Nuclear/Atomic Minerals (Uranium, Thorium)
• Hydrogen-based Energy (National Green Hydrogen Mission)
• Hybrid Renewable Energy

Energy Crisis and Conservation

India as a Geographical Unit

Location, Extent, Size, Frontiers

Indian Standard Time

Physiographic Divisions of India

The Northern Mountains (Himalayas):

• Origin and Classification (Trans, Greater, Lesser, Shiwaliks, Purvanchal)
• Regional Divisions (Kashmir, Kumaon, Nepal, Assam Himalayas)
• Major Peaks, Passes, Valleys (e.g., Chug Valley), Glaciers, Duns
• Significance

The Great Northern Plains (Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plains):

• Formation and Divisions (Bhabar, Terai, Bangar, Khadar, Delta - Sundarbans)
• Regional Divisions (Rajasthan, Punjab-Haryana, Ganga, Brahmaputra Plains)
• Significance

The Peninsular Plateau:

• Features and Divisions (Central Highlands, Deccan Plateau)
• Major Hills (Aravallis, Vindhyas, Satpuras, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats)
• Significance

The Indian Desert (Thar)

The Coastal Plains (Western and Eastern):

• Features, Sub-divisions (e.g., Konkan, Malabar, Coromandel), Lagoons (e.g., Chilika, Pulicat)

The Islands (Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep):

• Origin, Features.

Drainage System of India

Classification: Himalayan and Peninsular Rivers

Himalayan Rivers: Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra Systems and their tributaries

Peninsular Rivers: East Flowing (Mahanadi, Godavari, etc.), West Flowing (Narmada, Tapi, etc.)

Lakes in India (e.g., Dal, Wular, Sambhar, Roopkund, Loktak)

River Basins

Indian Climate (Monsoon System)

Factors Determining Indian Climate

Mechanism of Indian Monsoon: Classical and Modern Theories

Onset and Withdrawal of Monsoon

Seasons in India

Distribution of Rainfall

Climatic Regions of India (Koeppen's classification)

Monsoon and Indian Economy

Indian Soils and Vegetation

(Already covered in Biogeography, apply specifically to India)

Specific Geographical Features/Locations in India (Current Affairs)

• Hills/Ranges: Thangjing Hills, Panchachuli Mountain Range
• Valleys: Chug Valley
• Cliffs: Varkala Cliff
• Places: Jiribam, "The Sada"
• Lakes: Roopkund, Dal Lake, Sambhar Lake
• Rivers: Ghataprabha, Pennaiyar, Bagmati, Yamuna, Hindon, Barak, Uttarakhand Rivers
• Projects: Ken-Betwa, Kalasa-Banduri, Upper Siang Hydro, Z-Morh Tunnel, Sonamarg Tunnel
• Resources: Tungsten discovery, Gold nuggets in orogenic quartz veins
• Phenomena: Swell Waves, Heatwaves in India, Landfall of cyclone, Onset of monsoon
• Institutions/Missions: IndOBIS, Mission Mausam, IMD, BCNN for weather.

Concepts: Hazard, Vulnerability, Risk, Disaster

Types of Disasters (Focus on India)

• Earthquakes (Seismic zones of India)
• Tsunamis
• Cyclones (Preparedness, tracking, impact)
• Floods (Riverine, Flash Floods, Urban Floods)
• Droughts (Meteorological, Hydrological, Agricultural)
• Landslides (Himalayan region, Western Ghats)
• Heatwaves and Cold Waves
• Forest Fires
• Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs)
• Cloudbursts
• Industrial/Chemical Disasters (Geographical factors in siting)
• Railway Accidents (Terrain related)
• Crowd Disasters (Pilgrimage sites often in specific terrains)

Disaster Management Cycle

• Preparedness, Mitigation, Response, Recovery, Rehabilitation

Institutional and Policy Framework

• National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
• Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
• Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)

Countries/Regions:

• Georgia, South Korea, Syria, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Nigeria, Morocco, Crimea, Moldova, Vanuatu, Libya, Kuwait, Namibia, Solomon Islands, Bhutan (Gelephu), Uganda, Lebanon, Jordan, Botswana.

Water Bodies:

• Seas: Caspian Sea, South China Sea, Baltic Sea, Dead Sea
• Lakes: Lake Erie, Lake Natron, Lake Turkana
• Rivers: Nile River
• Straits/Canals: Kerch Strait, Panama Canal
• Oceans/Bays: Southern Ocean

Landforms:

• Islands: Crete, Guam, Madeira, Minami-Torishima, Chagos Archipelago, Triton, Greenland, Solomon Islands
• Peninsulas: Antarctic Peninsula, Korean Peninsula, Reykjanes Peninsula
• Mountains/Volcanoes: La Cumbre Volcano, Mount Lewotobi Laki-Laki Volcano, Kilauea Volcano, Caucasus Mountains, Mount Erebus
• Glaciers/Ice Sheets: Humboldt Glacier, Antarctic Peninsula Ice
• Deserts/Salt Flats: Salar de Uyuni, Atacama Salt Flat
• Wetlands: Brazil's Pantanal Wetlands

Specific Locations:

• Golan Heights, Gelephu Mindfulness City (Bhutan)