Papers I & II: An Interactive Digital Exploration
A comprehensive overview of core principles in animal nutrition, physiology, reproduction, production, genetics, extension, anatomy, pharmacology, diseases, public health, and product technology.
Gross Energy (GE) Digestible Energy (DE) Metabolizable Energy (ME) Net Energy (NE for Maintenance & Production).
Direct & Indirect Calorimetry, Carbon—Nitrogen Balance, Comparative Slaughter.
Ruminants (ME, NEL,m,g, TDN), Pigs (DE, ME, NE), Poultry (AMEn, TME).
For maintenance, growth, pregnancy, lactation, egg, wool, meat production - varies by species, age, physiological state.
Ideal amino acid profiles, bypass protein, NPN (e.g., urea in ruminants), energy-protein inter-relationships.
Biological Value (BV), Net Protein Utilization (NPU), Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER).
For maintenance, growth, pregnancy, lactation, egg, wool, meat production.
Sources, functions, deficiency symptoms (e.g., Ca, P, Mg, Fe, Cu, I, Se). Toxic minerals & interactions.
Role in body, sources, deficiency symptoms (e.g., Vit A, D, E, K, B-complex).
Methane inhibitors, probiotics, enzymes, antibiotics, hormones, oligosaccharides, antioxidants, emulsifiers, mould inhibitors, buffers. Use and abuse of growth promoters (hormones, antibiotics) - latest concepts focus on alternatives.
Haymaking, silage. Storage. Feed processing (grinding, pelleting). Anti-nutritional/toxic factors. Feed analysis, quality control. Digestibility trials (direct, indirect, indicator). Predicting feed intake in grazing animals.
Nutrient Requirements: Based on NRC, ARC guidelines; vary with age, weight, production stage, environment. Focus on energy, protein (RDP, RUP), fiber (NDF, ADF), minerals, vitamins.
Balanced Rations: Formulated to meet all nutrient needs for optimal health and production, preventing deficiencies or excesses. Use of feed formulation software.
Calves: Colostrum vital. Milk/replacer, calf starter, good quality hay. Early weaning strategies.
Pregnant Animals: Increased needs in late gestation for fetal growth and colostrum production. Avoid over/under-conditioning.
Work Animals: Higher energy needs based on work intensity. Good quality roughage and concentrates.
Breeding Bulls: Maintain optimal body condition for libido and semen quality. Avoid obesity.
Lactation Cycle Feeding:
Effect on Milk Composition: Fiber influences milk fat. Energy/protein intake affects milk yield and protein content. Specific fatty acids in diet can alter milk fat profile.
Goats (Meat & Milk): Browsers. Higher tolerance for fibrous feeds. Requirements vary for dairy vs. meat breeds. Flushing for better reproduction.
Sheep (Meat & Wool): Grazers. Requirements depend on production (wool growth, lambing rate, growth rate). Susceptible to copper toxicity. Creep feeding for lambs.
Nutrient Requirements: High energy, high quality protein (lysine is first limiting amino acid). Specific mineral (Ca, P, trace minerals) and vitamin needs.
Phase Feeding Rations:
Feeding for Lean Meat Production: Higher protein (amino acid) levels, optimal energy:protein ratio. Genetic potential is key. Paylean (ractopamine) where permitted.
Low Cost Rations: Utilize locally available, alternative feed ingredients (e.g., agro-industrial by-products). Requires careful formulation to balance nutrients and manage anti-nutritional factors.
Special Features: Rapid growth, high metabolic rate, simple digestive tract, feed intake based on energy. Precise amino acid balancing is crucial (Methionine often first limiting after Lysine). Grit for gizzard function in some systems.
Nutrient Requirements for Meat (Broilers):
Nutrient Requirements for Egg Production (Layers):
Formulation of Rations: Typically least-cost formulation using linear programming. Common ingredients: corn, soybean meal, DDGS, meat & bone meal, vitamin/mineral premixes. Additives: coccidiostats, enzymes, antioxidants.
This section delves into the fundamental life-sustaining systems of animals:
Components: Plasma (water, proteins, electrolytes, hormones, nutrients, wastes) and Cellular elements (erythrocytes/RBCs, leukocytes/WBCs, thrombocytes/platelets).
Functions: Transport, pH buffering, thermoregulation, immunity, clotting.
Haemopoiesis (Blood Cell Formation): Occurs primarily in bone marrow. Stem cells differentiate into various blood cell lineages.
Haemoglobin Synthesis: Complex process involving iron, protoporphyrin, and globin chains. Essential for O2 transport by RBCs. Chemistry varies slightly between species.
Plasma Proteins: Albumins (osmotic pressure, transport), Globulins (transport, immunity - antibodies), Fibrinogen (clotting). Produced mainly in liver.
Coagulation: Intrinsic and extrinsic pathways leading to fibrin clot formation. Involves platelets and clotting factors.
Haemorrhagic Disorders: e.g., hemophilia, Vitamin K deficiency, thrombocytopenia.
Anticoagulants: Heparin, EDTA, citrate, warfarin (inhibit clotting).
Blood Groups: Based on erythrocyte surface antigens. Important for transfusions (less critical in most vet med than human).
Blood Volume & Plasma Expanders: Maintenance of circulating volume. Expanders (e.g., dextrans, saline) used in shock/hemorrhage.
Buffer Systems: Bicarbonate, phosphate, protein buffers maintain blood pH (around 7.4).
Analysis of blood components (enzymes, metabolites, electrolytes, cell counts) provides crucial diagnostic information about organ function (liver, kidney), metabolic status, infection, and inflammation.
Cardiac Cycle: Systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation) of atria and ventricles.
Heart Sounds: "Lubb" (AV valve closure), "Dupp" (semilunar valve closure). Murmurs indicate abnormal flow.
Heart Beat: Originates in SA node (pacemaker), conducted through AV node, Bundle of His, Purkinje fibers.
Electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG): Records electrical activity (P wave, QRS complex, T wave). Used to diagnose arrhythmias, conduction abnormalities.
Work & Efficiency: Heart performs pressure-volume work. Efficiency is ratio of work done to energy consumed.
Effect of Ions: Ca2+ (contractility), K+ (resting potential, excitability), Na+ (action potential).
Cardiac Muscle Metabolism: Highly aerobic, relies on fatty acids, glucose, lactate.
Regulation: Nervous (sympathetic , parasympathetic rate/force) and Chemical (hormones like adrenaline).
Effect of Temperature & Stress: Hypo/hyperthermia affect rate. Stress increases sympathetic drive.
Blood Pressure: Force exerted by blood on vessel walls. Systolic/Diastolic. Hypertension (high BP).
Osmotic Regulation: Plasma proteins (oncotic pressure) and electrolytes (osmotic pressure) influence fluid balance between blood and tissues.
Arterial Pulse: Pressure wave from ventricular contraction, palpable in peripheral arteries.
Vasomotor Regulation: Control of blood vessel diameter by nervous (vasomotor center), hormonal, and local factors, affecting blood flow and pressure.
Shock: Circulatory collapse leading to inadequate tissue perfusion. Types: hypovolemic, cardiogenic, septic, anaphylactic.
Coronary Circulation: Blood supply to the heart muscle itself.
Pulmonary Circulation: Blood flow between heart and lungs for gas exchange.
Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB): Specialized capillaries restricting passage of substances into brain tissue.
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): Produced by choroid plexus, circulates in ventricles and subarachnoid space, cushions CNS.
Circulation in Birds: Four-chambered heart, efficient. Renal portal system. No diaphragm, air sacs involved in unique respiratory system.
Mechanism of Respiration: Inspiration (active, diaphragm/intercostal muscles contract) and Expiration (passive at rest, active during exertion).
Transport and Exchange of Gases:
Neural Control of Respiration: Respiratory centers in medulla and pons regulate rate and depth. Stretch receptors in lungs (Hering-Breuer reflex).
Chemo-receptors: Central (medulla, sense CSF H+/pCO2) and Peripheral (carotid/aortic bodies, sense arterial pO2, pCO2, H+) modulate breathing.
Hypoxia: Oxygen deficiency at tissue level. Types: hypoxic, anemic, stagnant, histotoxic.
Respiration in Birds: Unique system with rigid lungs and air sacs (anterior/posterior groups). Unidirectional air flow through parabronchi. Cross-current exchange. Highly efficient, supports high metabolic rate for flight.
Structure of Kidney: Cortex, medulla, renal pelvis. Nephron is the functional unit (glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct).
Formation of Urine:
Methods of Studying Renal Function: Clearance tests (e.g., creatinine, inulin clearance for GFR), urinalysis (physical, chemical, microscopic), blood tests (BUN, creatinine).
Renal Regulation of Acid-Base Balance: Excretion of H+, reabsorption/generation of HCO3-.
Physiological Constituents of Urine: Water, urea, uric acid (birds/reptiles), creatinine, electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl-), urobilinogen. Abnormal: glucose, protein, ketones, blood.
Renal Failure: Acute or chronic. Inability of kidneys to excrete waste, maintain fluid/electrolyte balance. Leads to uremia.
Passive Venous Congestion: Impaired venous drainage from kidneys (e.g., due to heart failure) can affect renal function.
Urinary Secretion in Chicken: Uric acid is primary nitrogenous waste (semi-solid urine). Kidneys have mammalian-type and reptilian-type nephrons. Renal portal system present.
Sweat Glands & Function: Important for thermoregulation in some species (e.g., horses, humans). Less developed or absent in others (e.g., pigs, dogs use panting). Excrete water, electrolytes, some urea.
Biochemical Tests for Urinary Dysfunction: BUN, serum creatinine, urinalysis (specific gravity, pH, protein, glucose, sediment exam).
Study of hormones and their effects on target organs. Endocrine glands include pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas (islets), gonads, pineal gland.
Functional Disorders: Symptoms and diagnosis related to hyper- or hypo-secretion (e.g., hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, Cushing's, Addison's, diabetes mellitus).
Synthesis of Hormones: Peptide/protein hormones (e.g., insulin, GH) synthesized via gene transcription/translation. Steroid hormones (e.g., cortisol, sex hormones) synthesized from cholesterol.
Mechanism and Control of Secretion: Negative/positive feedback loops, neural control, tropic hormones. Pulsatile secretion common.
Hormonal Receptors: Specific proteins on cell surface or intracellularly that bind hormones, initiating cellular response.
Classification & Function: Classified by chemical nature (peptide, steroid, amine) or function. Regulate metabolism, growth, reproduction, stress response, homeostasis.
Prenatal Growth: Ovum, embryonic, and fetal stages. Organogenesis. Influenced by maternal nutrition and genetics.
Postnatal Growth: From birth to maturity. Hypertrophy (cell size increase) and hyperplasia (cell number increase).
Maturation: Attainment of adult size and physiological function, including sexual maturity.
Growth Curves: Sigmoid (S-shaped) curve typically observed (lag, log, stationary, decline phases). Different tissues grow at different rates (bone, muscle, fat).
Measures of Growth: Body weight, linear body measurements (height, length, girth), feed conversion efficiency, average daily gain.
Factors Affecting Growth: Genetics, nutrition, hormones (GH, thyroid, insulin, sex steroids), environment, health status.
Conformation: Physical form and shape of an animal, related to breed standards and production suitability.
Body Composition: Proportions of muscle, fat, bone, and water. Changes with age and nutritional plane.
Meat Quality: Tenderness, juiciness, flavor, color. Influenced by genetics, age, nutrition, pre- and post-slaughter handling.
Mammary Development (Mammogenesis): Hormonal control: Estrogen (ductal), Progesterone (alveolar), Prolactin, Growth Hormone, Adrenal steroids.
Milk Secretion (Lactogenesis): Initiation and maintenance of milk synthesis in alveolar cells. Key hormones: Prolactin, Cortisol, Insulin, Thyroid hormones.
Milk Ejection (Galactokinesis): Reflex release of milk from alveoli to ducts. Oxytocin (released from posterior pituitary due to suckling/milking stimulus) causes contraction of myoepithelial cells.
Male: Testes (spermatogenesis, testosterone production), epididymis (sperm maturation/storage), vas deferens, accessory sex glands (seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral - contribute to seminal plasma), penis.
Female: Ovaries (oogenesis, estrogen/progesterone production), oviducts (fertilization site), uterus (implantation, fetal development), cervix, vagina, vulva. Estrous cycle and its hormonal control (GnRH, FSH, LH, estrogen, progesterone, PGF2α).
Monogastric (e.g., pig, poultry): Mouth (mastication/saliva), esophagus, stomach (HCl, pepsin), small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum - enzymes, absorption), large intestine (water absorption, fermentation in some).
Ruminant (e.g., cattle, sheep): Mouth (rumination), esophagus, four-compartment stomach (rumen - microbial fermentation; reticulum - mixing, regurgitation; omasum - water/VFA absorption; abomasum - true stomach, HCl/pepsin), intestines similar to monogastrics but adapted for products of fermentation.
Accessory organs: Liver (bile production), Pancreas (digestive enzymes, bicarbonate).
Physiological Relations & Regulation: How animals interact with and respond to their physical environment (temperature, humidity, light, altitude).
Mechanisms of Adaptation: Acclimatization (short-term physiological changes) vs. Genetic adaptation (long-term evolutionary changes). Behavioral, physiological, morphological adaptations to cope with environmental stressors.
Environmental Factors & Regulatory Mechanisms in Animal Behaviour: Light (photoperiodism affecting reproduction), temperature (seeking shade/sun), social environment.
Climatology & Parameters: Temperature (ambient, critical), humidity (THI - Temperature Humidity Index), air movement, radiation. Importance in animal comfort, health, and productivity.
Animal Ecology: Study of animals in relation to their environment and other organisms.
Physiology of Behaviour: Neural and hormonal basis of behaviors (e.g., feeding, reproductive, social, maternal).
Effect of Stress on Health & Production: Stressors (heat, cold, handling, transport, social) can activate HPA axis, leading to immunosuppression, reduced growth, poor reproduction, and welfare concerns.
Components of Semen: Spermatozoa and seminal plasma (secretions from accessory sex glands).
Composition of Spermatozoa: Head (acrosome, nucleus), midpiece (mitochondria), tail (motility).
Chemical & Physical Properties of Ejaculated Semen: Volume, concentration, motility, morphology, pH, osmotic pressure, metabolic activity.
Factors Affecting Semen In Vivo & In Vitro: Age, breed, nutrition, health, frequency of ejaculation, stress, temperature, light (in vitro handling, diluents, storage conditions).
Factors Affecting Semen Production & Quality: Genetics, season (in some species), testicular size, toxins, diseases.
Preservation: Short-term (liquid, chilled) or long-term (cryopreservation/frozen in liquid nitrogen).
Composition of Diluents: Provide nutrients (egg yolk, milk, sugars), cryoprotectants (glycerol, DMSO), buffers, antibiotics.
Sperm Concentration: Determined by hemocytometer, spectrophotometer. Important for calculating insemination doses.
Transport of Diluted Semen: Chilled semen in insulated containers. Frozen semen in liquid nitrogen tanks.
Deep Freezing Techniques: Specific protocols for cows, sheep, goats, swine, poultry, involving equilibration with cryoprotectant, cooling rates, straw packaging, freezing methods.
Detection of Oestrus: Critical for AI success. Visual signs (mounting, restlessness, vulval swelling/discharge), teaser animals, heat detection aids (patches, electronic systems).
Time of Insemination: Varies by species, typically towards mid to end of oestrus (e.g., AM/PM rule in cattle).
Anoestrus & Repeat Breeding: Anoestrus (failure to cycle) due to nutrition, lactation, stress, pathology. Repeat breeding (failure to conceive after multiple inseminations) due to fertilization failure, early embryonic death, uterine issues, management factors.
Comparison: India vs. advanced countries (scale, technology, yield, infrastructure).
Farming Systems: Mixed farming (integration with crops) vs. Specialized farming (dairy as sole enterprise). Economic viability, sustainability.
Starting a Dairy Farm: Capital (land, animals, housing, equipment), land requirement (forage production, housing), organization (layout, labor).
Opportunities: Growing demand for milk/products, value addition, employment.
Efficiency Factors: Genetics, nutrition, health management, reproduction, housing, labor efficiency.
Herd Recording: Milk yield, composition, health, reproduction records for management decisions.
Budgeting & Cost of Milk Production: Fixed and variable costs. Pricing policy influences profitability.
Personnel Management: Skilled labor, training, motivation.
Rations & Feeding: Practical, economic rations. Year-round green fodder supply (cultivation, conservation). Feed/fodder requirements. Feeding regimes for young stock, bulls, heifers, breeding animals. New trends (TMR, precision feeding). Feeding records.
Rations: Development of practical and economic rations for sheep (meat/wool), goats (meat/milk), pigs (lean meat), rabbits (meat/fur), poultry (meat/eggs). Considerations for specific species needs and production goals.
Fodder & Feeding Regimes: Supply of greens/fodder where applicable (ruminants, rabbits). Feeding regimes for young and mature stock, tailored to growth phase, reproductive status, or production level.
New Trends: Precision nutrition, phase feeding, use of alternative feedstuffs, automation in feeding, focus on animal welfare and product quality (e.g., lean meat, specific egg qualities).
Capital & Land Requirements: Vary greatly by species and scale of operation. Socio-economic impact (employment, income generation, food security).
Preparedness: Contingency plans, identification of safe zones, stockpiling emergency feed/water.
Drought: Water conservation, use of drought-resistant fodders, supplementary feeding with unconventional feeds, culling strategies, animal health care (stress, malnutrition).
Flood: Evacuation to higher ground, provision of dry feed/clean water, disease prevention (water-borne diseases, foot rot), shelter management.
Other Calamities (e.g., cyclones, earthquakes): Similar principles of ensuring animal safety, feed/water, shelter, and veterinary care. Post-disaster recovery and restocking.
Emergency Feed Resources: Crop residues, tree leaves, treated straws, feed blocks, preserved fodders.
History: Early domestication, Mendelian genetics, discovery of DNA, molecular genetics era.
Cell Division: Mitosis (somatic cells), Meiosis (gamete formation, genetic variation).
Mendelian Inheritance: Laws of Segregation & Independent Assortment. Deviations: incomplete dominance, codominance, epistasis, pleiotropy.
Gene Expression: Transcription, translation. Regulation of gene activity.
Linkage & Crossing Over: Genes on same chromosome tend to be inherited together; crossing over creates new combinations.
Sex Determination: Chromosomal (XX/XY, ZW/ZZ), environmental. Sex-influenced (expression differs by sex) & sex-limited (expressed in one sex only) characters.
Blood Groups & Polymorphism: Genetic variation in blood antigens and other proteins/enzymes.
Chromosome Aberrations: Numerical (aneuploidy, polyploidy) & structural (deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations).
Cytoplasmic Inheritance: Mitochondrial DNA, maternal inheritance.
Gene Structure: Exons, introns, promoters. DNA as genetic material (Griffith, Avery-MacLeod-McCarty, Hershey-Chase experiments).
Genetic Code & Protein Synthesis: Codons, tRNA, ribosomes. Central dogma.
Recombinant DNA Technology: Gene cloning, PCR, gene editing (CRISPR-Cas9).
Mutations: Types (point, frameshift, chromosomal), spontaneous vs. induced. Methods for detection. Mutation rate.
Transgenesis: Introduction of foreign DNA into an organism's genome.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Traits: Continuous variation, polygenic inheritance vs. discrete categories, few genes.
Hardy-Weinberg Law: Allele and genotype frequencies in a large, random-mating population remain constant if no evolutionary influences.
Population vs. Individual: Focus on genetic makeup of populations.
Gene & Genotypic Frequency: Calculation and interpretation.
Forces Changing Gene Frequency: Mutation, Migration (gene flow), Selection (natural/artificial), Random Genetic Drift (especially in small populations).
Theory of Path Coefficient: Analyzing direct and indirect causes of correlation.
Inbreeding: Mating of related individuals. Methods of estimating inbreeding coefficient (F). Systems: close breeding, line breeding. Effects: increased homozygosity, inbreeding depression, fixing desirable traits.
Effective Population Size (Ne): Size of an idealized population that would experience same amount of genetic drift.
Breeding Value (BV): Genetic merit of an animal as a parent. Estimation methods (e.g., BLUP).
Dominance & Epistatic Deviation: Non-additive genetic effects.
Partitioning of Variation: Phenotypic variance (VP) = Genotypic variance (VG) + Environmental variance (VE). VG = Additive (VA) + Dominance (VD) + Epistatic (VI).
Genotype x Environment Correlation & Interaction: GxE correlation (certain genotypes favored in certain environments). GxE interaction (different genotypes rank differently across environments).
Role of Multiple Measurements: Increases accuracy of estimating breeding values and genetic parameters.
Resemblance Between Relatives: Covariance between relatives used to estimate genetic parameters (e.g., heritability).
Breeds of Livestock & Poultry: Classification, characteristics, utility.
Heritability (h2): Proportion of phenotypic variance due to additive genetic variance (VA/VP). Narrow-sense vs. Broad-sense.
Repeatability (R): Proportion of total variance due to permanent effects (genetic + permanent environmental). Upper limit for h2.
Genetic & Phenotypic Correlations: Association between traits due to genetic or environmental causes. Methods of estimation, precision.
Aids to Selection & Relative Merits:
Pregnancy Testing: Not directly a selection aid, but important for reproductive management affecting selection intensity.
Methods of Selection: Tandem, Independent Culling Levels, Selection Index (combines multiple traits weighted by economic importance and genetic parameters).
Construction of Selection Indices & Uses: Maximizes genetic gain for overall economic merit.
Comparative Evaluation of Genetic Gains: Different methods yield different rates of progress.
Indirect Selection & Correlated Response: Selecting for one trait to improve another genetically correlated trait.
Breeding Strategies:
Crossing of Inbred Lines for Commercial Production: Exploits heterosis (e.g., in poultry, pigs).
Selection for General (GCA) & Specific (SCA) Combining Ability: Important in crossbreeding programs.
Breeding for Threshold Characters: Traits with underlying continuous variation but discrete expression (e.g., disease resistance - susceptible/resistant).
Sire Index: Methods to evaluate and rank sires based on their progeny's performance (e.g., contemporary comparison, BLUP).
Basic Philosophy: Helping people help themselves. Education for development, focusing on practical application of knowledge.
Objectives: Improve livelihoods, increase production/productivity, promote sustainable practices, empower rural communities.
Concept: An informal, out-of-school educational process involving dissemination of information and technology from research to farmers.
Principles: Felt needs, grassroots approach, participation, learning by doing, whole family approach, leadership development, satisfaction, cultural compatibility.
Different Methods to Educate Farmers in Rural Conditions:
Generation of Technology, Transfer & Feedback:
Problems & Constraints in Transfer of Technology: Socio-economic (poverty, literacy, landholding size), technological (complexity, cost, appropriateness), institutional (credit, input supply, marketing), communication gap, lack of skilled extension personnel.
Animal Husbandry Programmes for Rural Development: Examples include schemes for dairy development (e.g., National Dairy Plan), poultry development, sheep/goat improvement, fodder development, animal health services, credit linkage, insurance schemes.
Paraffin Embedding Technique: Fixation (e.g., formalin), dehydration (alcohols), clearing (xylene), infiltration (paraffin wax), embedding, sectioning (microtome), mounting, staining.
H.E. Staining (Hematoxylin & Eosin): Hematoxylin (basic dye, stains acidic structures like nucleus blue/purple). Eosin (acidic dye, stains basic structures like cytoplasm pink/red).
Freezing Microtomy: Rapid freezing of tissue (e.g., cryostat), sectioning without embedding. Used for rapid diagnosis, fat stains, immunohistochemistry.
Microscopy:
Cytology: Structure of cell organelles (nucleus, mitochondria, ER, Golgi, lysosomes) and inclusions (pigments, glycogen, lipids).
Cell Division: Mitosis (somatic) and Meiosis (germ cells).
Cell Types: Diverse specialized cells (e.g., neurons, muscle cells, epithelial cells, connective tissue cells).
Tissues & Classification: Groups of similar cells performing a common function.
Embryonic & Adult Tissues: Origin from germ layers; differentiation and specialization.
Microscopic structural differences and similarities of organ systems across domestic animal species.
Vascular System: Arteries, veins, capillaries, heart wall layers.
Nervous System: Neurons, glial cells, ganglia, nerve fibers (myelinated/unmyelinated).
Digestive System: Layers of GIT (mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa), glands (salivary, liver, pancreas), species variations (e.g., rumen papillae).
Respiratory System: Nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi, lungs (alveoli, parabronchi in birds).
Musculo-skeletal System: Muscle fiber types, bone (compact, spongy), cartilage.
Urogenital Systems: Kidney (nephron structure), gonads, reproductive tracts.
Endocrine Glands: Cellular arrangement and characteristics of pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, etc.
Integument: Epidermis, dermis, hypodermis, hair follicles, glands (sebaceous, sweat).
Sense Organs: Eye (retina), ear (cochlea, vestibular apparatus), taste buds, olfactory epithelium.
Embryology of Vertebrates (special reference to aves and domestic mammals):
Paranasal Sinuses of Ox: Frontal, maxillary, sphenopalatine, lacrimal. Clinical significance (sinusitis).
Surface Anatomy of Salivary Glands: Parotid, mandibular, sublingual. Location for palpation/surgery.
Nerve Blocks (Regional Anatomy):
Cranial Nerves: Overview of I-XII, their general function and foramina of exit. (Emphasis on those relevant to blocks or clinical signs).
Epidural Anaesthesia: Structures involved: Sacrocaudal (low epidural for tail, perineum) or Lumbosacral (high epidural for hindquarters, udder surgery).
Superficial Lymph Nodes: Palpable nodes and their drainage areas (e.g., submandibular, prescapular, prefemoral, supramammary). Importance in disease diagnosis.
Surface Anatomy of Visceral Organs (Thoracic, Abdominal, Pelvic Cavities): Topographical location of heart, lungs, rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasum, liver, spleen, kidneys, intestines, uterus, bladder relative to external landmarks (ribs, vertebrae, pelvis).
Comparative Features of Locomotor Apparatus & Biomechanics: Bones, joints, muscles, tendons, ligaments of limbs. Adaptations for weight-bearing and locomotion in large herbivores. Stay apparatus in horse (though bovine focused, general principles). Application in understanding lameness and conformation.
Musculo-skeletal System:
Functional Anatomy in Relation to:
Pharmacodynamics (PD): What drugs do to the body. Mechanism of action, receptor interactions, dose-response relationships, therapeutic effects, adverse effects.
Pharmacokinetics (PK): What the body does to drugs. ADME: Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism (biotransformation), Excretion. Half-life, bioavailability, volume of distribution, clearance.
Drugs Acting on Fluids & Electrolyte Balance: Diuretics (e.g., furosemide, mannitol), fluid therapy solutions (crystalloids, colloids).
Drugs Acting on Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Cholinergics, anticholinergics, adrenergics, adrenergic blockers. (e.g., atropine, epinephrine, xylazine).
Modern Concepts of Anaesthesia & Dissociative Anaesthetics: Balanced anesthesia, multimodal analgesia. Dissociative anaesthetics (e.g., ketamine, tiletamine) - mechanism, effects.
Autacoids: Locally acting hormones/mediators (e.g., histamine, prostaglandins, serotonin). Antihistamines, NSAIDs (prostaglandin inhibitors).
Antimicrobials & Principles of Chemotherapy: Antibacterials (classification by mechanism/spectrum), antifungals, antivirals. Bacteriostatic vs. bactericidal. Principles: selective toxicity, resistance, combination therapy, prophylactic use.
Use of Hormones in Therapeutics: Reproductive hormones (GnRH, PGF2α, progesterone, estrogen), corticosteroids (anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive), insulin, thyroid hormones.
Chemotherapy of Parasitic Infections: Anthelmintics (for nematodes, cestodes, trematodes), antiprotozoals, ectoparasiticides.
Drug & Economic Concerns in Edible Tissues: Drug residues, withdrawal times, Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs). Impact on food safety and trade.
Chemotherapy of Neoplastic Diseases: Principles of cancer chemotherapy, classes of cytotoxic drugs (alkylating agents, antimetabolites, etc.). Palliative vs. curative intent.
Toxicity Due To:
Assessment of Pollution of Water, Air, and Soil:
Importance of Climate in Animal Health: Temperature, humidity, wind, solar radiation. Thermoneutral zone. Heat stress, cold stress impacts on physiology, behavior, production, disease susceptibility.
Effect of Environment on Animal Function & Performance: Housing design, space allowance, ventilation, lighting, noise. Relationship to productivity and welfare.
Relationship between Industrialisation & Animal Agriculture: Effluent/waste management from large farms, zoonotic disease risks, air/water pollution from intensive units. Competition for resources (land, water).
Animal Housing Requirements for Specific Categories:
Stress, Strain & Productivity in Relation to Animal Habitation: Chronic stress from poor housing (overcrowding, poor ventilation, social stress) leads to physiological strain, reduced immunity, lower productivity, and welfare issues.
(This is a vast area. Content below provides a framework and examples. Specific diseases for each species would be numerous.)
General Approach for Each Disease Category: Etiology (causative agent - virus, bacteria, fungi, prions), Epidemiology (transmission, distribution, risk factors), Pathogenesis (how disease develops), Symptoms (clinical signs), Post-mortem Lesions (gross and microscopic findings), Diagnosis (clinical, lab tests - culture, PCR, serology), Control (vaccination, biosecurity, treatment, eradication).
Examples: Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD), Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR), Brucellosis, Tuberculosis, Mastitis (bacterial), Anthrax, Blackleg, Johne's Disease.
Examples: Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR), Contagious Ecthyma (Orf), Bluetongue, Caseous Lymphadenitis (CLA), Footrot, Enterotoxemia (Clostridial diseases), Scrapie.
Examples: Equine Influenza, Strangles (Streptococcus equi), Equine Herpesvirus (EHV-1, EHV-4), Tetanus, Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA), Glanders.
Examples: Classical Swine Fever (CSF), African Swine Fever (ASF), Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS), Swine Influenza, Mycoplasmal pneumonia, Erysipelas.
Examples: Newcastle Disease (Ranikhet), Avian Influenza (Bird Flu), Infectious Bursal Disease (Gumboro), Marek's Disease, Fowl Pox, Fowl Cholera, Salmonellosis, Coccidiosis (protozoal).
Diseases often linked to intensive production systems, metabolic stress, or management practices.
Cattle: Milk fever (hypocalcemia), Ketosis (negative energy balance), Grass tetany (hypomagnesemia), Displaced abomasum, Ruminal acidosis, Laminitis.
Horse: Equine Metabolic Syndrome (EMS), Laminitis, Recurrent Airway Obstruction (Heaves), Colic (multifactorial, can be production-related).
Pig: Gastric ulcers, Post-weaning diarrhea, Mulberry heart disease (Vitamin E/Se deficiency - can be linked to rapid growth demands).
Poultry: Ascites (pulmonary hypertension syndrome in broilers), Fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome (layers), Skeletal disorders (e.g., tibial dyschondroplasia in broilers), Egg drop syndrome.
General Approach: Etiology (often multifactorial - nutrition, management, genetics), Epidemiology, Symptoms, Diagnosis (clinical signs, herd history, lab tests), Treatment (often supportive, dietary adjustment), Prevention (key focus - management, nutrition).
Result from inadequate intake or utilization of specific nutrients (vitamins, minerals). (Cross-references Paper I - Nutrition).
Diagnosis often involves feed analysis, blood/tissue mineral levels, response to supplementation.
Common clinical problems with diverse underlying causes.
Diagnosis: Detailed neurological examination (mentation, gait, cranial nerves, postural reactions, spinal reflexes), history, CSF analysis, imaging (radiography, CT, MRI where available), electrodiagnostics (EMG, nerve conduction), lab tests for specific infectious/toxic agents.
Common Neurological Signs: Seizures, ataxia, paralysis/paresis, head tilt, circling, blindness (cortical vs. ocular), nystagmus, behavioral changes.
Etiologies: Infectious (viral - rabies, distemper; bacterial - listeriosis, tetanus; parasitic - Coenurosis), Toxic (lead, organophosphates), Metabolic (hypoglycemia, hepatic encephalopathy), Nutritional (thiamine deficiency), Traumatic, Congenital, Neoplastic, Degenerative.
Treatment: Varies greatly by cause. Supportive care (fluids, nutrition, seizure control - e.g., diazepam, phenobarbital), specific antimicrobials, anti-inflammatory drugs (corticosteroids), surgery (e.g., for intervertebral disc disease), physical therapy.
Principles of Immunisation: Stimulate active immunity (memory cells) against specific pathogens without causing disease. Types of immunity: active (vaccination, natural infection) vs. passive (colostrum, antiserum).
Methods of Immunisation (Vaccine Types):
Herd Immunity: Protection of unvaccinated individuals when a high percentage of population is vaccinated, reducing pathogen transmission.
Disease Free Zones: Geographically defined areas where a specific disease is absent, based on surveillance and control measures. Important for trade (OIE recognition).
‘Zero’ Disease Concept: Aiming for complete eradication of a disease. Achievable for some (e.g., Rinderpest). Requires effective vaccines, diagnostics, surveillance, political will.
Chemoprophylaxis: Use of antimicrobial drugs to prevent infection or disease development (e.g., coccidiostats in poultry feed, antibiotics during high-risk periods).
Anaesthesia Types:
Preanesthetic Medication: Drugs given before anaesthesia to calm patient, reduce anaesthetic dose, provide preemptive analgesia, smooth induction/recovery (e.g., sedatives like acepromazine, xylazine; opioids like morphine, buprenorphine; anticholinergics like atropine).
Surgical Interference & Symptoms for:
Systematic Approach:
Materials for Laboratory Investigation (Sample Collection & Submission):
Establishment of Animal Health Centres: Veterinary hospitals/dispensaries, diagnostic laboratories. Role in disease surveillance, diagnosis, treatment, prevention, extension.
Disease Free Zone: See 2.6. Establishment requires robust surveillance, control measures, biosecurity, and official recognition (e.g., by OIE).
Definition: Diseases and infections naturally transmissible between vertebrate animals and humans.
Classification:
Role of Animals & Birds in Prevalence & Transmission: Animals can be reservoirs, amplifiers, or direct/indirect sources of infection for humans. Transmission routes: direct contact, aerosols, ingestion (contaminated food/water), vectors (ticks, mosquitoes).
Occupational Zoonotic Diseases: Diseases with higher risk for people working with animals or animal products (e.g., veterinarians, farmers, abattoir workers, lab personnel). Examples: Brucellosis, Q fever, Orf, Leptospirosis.
Recognizes the interconnectedness of human health, animal health, and environmental health. Crucial for controlling zoonoses.
Principle: Study of the distribution (frequency, patterns) and determinants (causes, risk factors) of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to control health problems.
Definition of Epidemiological Terms:
Application of Epidemiological Measures in Study of Diseases & Disease Control: Descriptive epidemiology (who, what, where, when), Analytical epidemiology (why, how - cohort studies, case-control studies), Experimental epidemiology (clinical trials). Used for surveillance, outbreak investigation, risk assessment, evaluating control programs.
Epidemiological Features of Air, Water, and Food Borne Infections:
OIE Regulation, WTO, Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures:
Application of veterinary knowledge to legal matters.
Rules & Regulations for Improvement of Animal Quality & Prevention of Animal Diseases:
State & Central Rules for Prevention of Animal & Animal Product Borne Diseases: Meat inspection acts, milk hygiene regulations, food safety standards (e.g., FSSAI in India). Quarantine laws.
S.P.C.A. (Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals): Role in animal welfare. Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act and associated rules (e.g., transport, slaughter, experimentation).
Veterolegal Cases: Involving animals, e.g., animal cruelty, insurance claims (death/injury of livestock), poisoning cases, professional malpractice, disputes over animal ownership/sale, wildlife forensics.
Certificates: Health certificates for animal movement/trade, soundness certificates, vaccination certificates, post-mortem certificates. Legal implications of issuing certificates.
Materials & Methods of Collection of Samples for Veterolegal Investigation: Proper chain of custody is crucial. Samples depend on case: tissues (fresh, fixed, frozen), blood, urine, stomach contents, feed, suspected poisons. Detailed labeling, secure packaging, proper preservation, submission to forensic labs.
Quality, Testing & Grading of Raw Milk:
Processing, Packaging, Storing, Distribution, Marketing:
Defects & Their Control: Off-flavors (feed, absorbed, microbial, oxidative), ropiness, bitterness. Control through hygiene, proper processing, storage.
Preparation of Following Milks:
Preparation of Cultured Milks:
Legal Standards: FSSAI (India), PFA (Prevention of Food Adulteration Act - now part of FSSAI) define standards for milk types and products (composition, microbial limits).
Sanitation Requirement for Clean & Safe Milk and Milk Plant Equipment: HACCP principles. CIP (Cleaning-In-Place) systems. Personal hygiene. Water quality.
General Steps: Selection of raw materials (quality milk), processing, storing, distributing, marketing.
Cream: Separation from milk (gravity/centrifugal). Types: table, whipping, plastic.
Butter: Churning cream. Ripening, working, salting. Ghee from butter/cream.
Ghee: Clarified butterfat. Indigenous method vs. creamery butter method.
Khoa: Heat desiccated milk product. Pindi, Dhap, Danedar types. Basis for many sweets.
Channa/Paneer: Acid and heat coagulated milk. Channa (soft, for sweets), Paneer (pressed, for cooking).
Cheese: Coagulation of milk casein (rennet/acid). Varieties depend on milk type, cultures, processing, ripening (e.g., Cheddar, Mozzarella, processed cheese).
Condensed Milk: Evaporation of water from milk, with or without added sugar (sweetened condensed milk).
Evaporated Milk: Concentrated by evaporation, sterilized in can.
Dried Milk (Milk Powder): Removal of water (spray drying, roller drying). Whole milk powder, skim milk powder.
Baby Food (Infant Formula): Modified milk to resemble human milk composition.
Ice Cream & Kulfi: Frozen dessert from milk, cream, sugar, stabilizers, emulsifiers, flavours. Kulfi is a traditional Indian frozen dessert, often denser.
By-products & Their Utilization:
Testing, Grading, Judging Milk Products: Sensory evaluation, compositional analysis, microbiological tests.
BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) & Agmark Specifications: National standards for quality and safety.
Legal Standards, Quality Control: Ensuring compliance, HACCP, GMP.
Nutritive Properties: Contribution of milk products to protein, calcium, vitamins, energy.
Packaging, Processing & Operational Control: Efficiency, safety, shelf life.
Costing of Dairy Products: Raw material, processing, packaging, labor, overheads.
Ante Mortem Care & Management of Food Animals: Rest, watering, minimize stress before slaughter. Inspection to identify sick/unfit animals.
Stunning: Rendering animal unconscious before bleeding. Methods: Captive bolt (cattle, sheep), Electrical (pigs, poultry), Gas (CO2 for pigs, poultry). Humane considerations.
Slaughter & Dressing Operations: Bleeding (Halal, Jhatka, Shechita considerations), skinning/dehairing/defeating, evisceration, splitting of carcass.
Abattoir Requirements & Designs: Segregation of clean/dirty areas, lairage, slaughter hall, processing rooms, chilling facilities, waste disposal. Hygienic design, proper lighting, ventilation, water supply.
Meat Inspection Procedures: Ante mortem and Post mortem inspection. Examination of carcass, organs, lymph nodes for diseases/abnormalities.
Judgement of Carcass: Condemnation (total/partial), approval for consumption. Based on findings.
Meat Cuts & Grading: Primal, sub-primal, retail cuts. Grading based on quality (marbling, color, texture, maturity) and yield.
Duties & Functions of Veterinarians in Wholesome Meat Production: Ensuring animal welfare, conducting inspections, enforcing hygiene standards, managing zoonotic risks, certifying meat.
Hygienic Methods of Handling Production of Meat: Cleanliness of personnel, equipment, premises. Temperature control (chilling). Cross-contamination prevention. HACCP implementation.
Spoilage of Meat & Control Measures: Microbial (bacteria, molds, yeasts), chemical (oxidation), enzymatic. Control by hygiene, temperature, packaging, preservatives.
Post-Slaughter Physicochemical Changes in Meat & Factors: Rigor mortis (ATP depletion, actin-myosin cross-bridges), pH drop (lactic acid). Factors: species, stress, temperature. PSE (Pale, Soft, Exudative) & DFD (Dark, Firm, Dry) meat conditions.
Quality Improvement Methods: Aging/conditioning (enzymatic tenderization), electrical stimulation, marination, mechanical tenderization.
Adulteration of Meat & Detection: Addition of water, cheaper meats, non-meat proteins. Detection by physical, chemical, immunological, DNA-based methods.
Regulatory Provisions in Meat Trade & Industry: Food safety laws, meat grading standards, import/export regulations. (e.g., FSSAI, APEDA in India).
5.2.1 Physical & Chemical Characteristics of Meat: Water holding capacity, color (myoglobin state), texture, tenderness, flavor components. Proximate composition (water, protein, fat, ash).
Meat Emulsions: System of finely chopped meat, fat, water, salt, and other ingredients (e.g., sausages, frankfurters). Role of salt-soluble proteins.
Methods of Preservation of Meat:
Processing & Formulations: Sausages, ham, bacon, corned beef, restructured meats, comminuted products. Use of binders, extenders, seasonings.
Slaughterhouse By-products & Their Utilisation: All parts of animal other than dressed carcass.
Edible By-products: Liver, heart, kidney, brain, tongue, tripe, blood (for blood sausage), fats (tallow, lard).
Inedible By-products: Hides/skins (leather), bones (bone meal, gelatin, glue), hooves/horns (meal), condemned meat (rendering for meat and bone meal, tallow), glands (for pharmaceuticals - e.g., insulin from pancreas, heparin from lungs/intestines), casings (intestines for sausages).
Social & Economic Implications of Proper Utilisation: Reduces waste, adds value to livestock industry, provides raw materials for other industries, employment, environmental protection (prevents pollution from improper disposal).
Organ Products for Food & Pharmaceuticals: See above. Liver, kidney, heart for food. Pancreas (insulin), thyroid (thyroxine), pituitary (hormones), adrenal glands (cortical hormones), ovaries (estrogens), testes (testosterone), heparin (lungs, intestines), bile (bile salts).
Chemical Composition & Nutritive Value: High protein, low fat (especially breast meat), good source of B-vitamins, minerals.
Pre-slaughter Care & Management: Feed withdrawal, careful handling to minimize stress/bruising.
Slaughtering Techniques: Stunning (electrical, gas), bleeding, scalding, defeathering, evisceration, chilling.
Inspection: Ante mortem and post mortem by veterinarians.
Preservation of Poultry Meat & Products: Chilling, freezing, MAP, curing, smoking, canning. Further processing: sausages, nuggets, patties.
Legal & BIS Standards: For poultry meat quality, processing hygiene, product specifications.
Structure: Shell, shell membranes, albumen (thin, thick), yolk, chalazae, germinal disc.
Composition & Nutritive Value: High biological value protein, fats (in yolk), vitamins (A, D, E, B-group), minerals (iron, phosphorus). Cholesterol in yolk.
Microbial Spoilage: Penetration of shell by bacteria (e.g., Salmonella, Pseudomonas). Off-odors, discoloration.
Preservation & Maintenance: Refrigeration, oil coating, cleaning, controlled atmosphere storage. Quality assessment: candling, Haugh unit, yolk index, albumen index.
Marketing of Poultry Meat, Eggs & Products: Grading, packaging, branding, cold chain management, retail channels.
Rabbit Meat Production: Breeds (New Zealand White, Californian), housing, nutrition, breeding, processing. Lean meat, high protein.
Disposal & Utilization of Fur & Wool:
Recycling of Waste By-products: Manure (fertilizer), offal/carcasses (composting, rendering if facilities exist).
Grading of Wool: Based on fiber diameter (fineness - micron), staple length, strength, color, crimp, yield. Subjective and objective methods.