Indispensable Institutions
Political parties serve as primary vehicles for citizen participation and interest articulation in representative democracies.
Aggregating Interests
They aggregate diverse opinions, formulate policies, contest elections, and form governments.
Evolving Dynamics
India's party system evolved from one-party dominance to a multi-party and coalition phase, now trending towards bi-nodal competition.
Despite their crucial functions, Indian political parties face numerous challenges, including a lack of inner-party democracy, opacity in funding, criminalization of politics, and dynastic succession, necessitating continuous reforms.
Source: Introduction/Summary from Prompt
Definition
A political party is an organized group of people who share common political ideologies, values, and goals, and who seek to gain and exercise political power, usually by contesting elections, to implement their policies and programs.
Essential Elements:
- Organization: Structured body.
- Shared Ideology/Program: Guiding principles and policies.
- Desire for Power: To implement their agenda.
- Electoral Competition: Participating in elections.
Source: NCERT Class X, 'Democratic Politics II'; M. Laxmikanth, 'Political Parties'
Key Features
- Voluntary Associations: People freely choose to join political parties.
- Shared Ideology/Program: Members generally agree on certain policies and principles for society.
- Aim to Gain Power: Their ultimate goal is to obtain political power through legitimate means (elections).
- Contest Elections: They nominate candidates and contest elections to gain seats in legislative bodies.
- Serve National Interest: Claim to promote the national interest and public welfare.
- Organized Structure: Have a hierarchical and organized structure from national to local levels.
Source: M. Laxmikanth
Political parties perform multifarious functions essential for the healthy functioning of a democracy.
Parties select candidates, offer them for election, and voters choose among them, giving direction to policy-making.
Source: M. Laxmikanth
They articulate and aggregate diverse demands and interests from various groups into coherent policy proposals and manifestos.
Source: M. Laxmikanth
The party or coalition that secures a majority forms the government and runs the administration according to their stated policies.
Source: M. Laxmikanth
Parties that lose elections play the role of opposition, providing constructive criticism, holding the government accountable, and mobilizing public opinion.
Source: M. Laxmikanth
They educate citizens about political issues, electoral processes, and governance, and mobilize voters to participate in elections.
Source: M. Laxmikanth
Parties influence public discourse and shape opinions on various issues through media campaigns, rallies, and public statements.
Source: M. Laxmikanth
They provide citizens with access to government machinery and welfare schemes, acting as intermediaries between citizens and public services.
Source: M. Laxmikanth
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One-Party Dominance (Congress System)
Domination of the Indian National Congress (INC) at both Union and State levels. Despite multiple parties, Congress rarely faced serious challengers to its majority. It was a 'party of consensus' accommodating diverse ideologies.
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Emergence of Multi-Party System
Decline of Congress dominance, rise of numerous regional and national parties, leading to a fragmented electoral landscape. No single party consistently securing a majority.
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Coalition Era
Formation of governments by alliances of multiple parties. Often led to unstable governments due to internal conflicts and shifting alliances, though some provided stable governance. Increased role of regional parties.
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Towards Bi-nodal / Multi-polar Competition
Resurgence of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) as a dominant national party, leading to a two-pole competition (BJP vs. Congress-led alliances). Strong majorities for BJP contrasting with the coalition era. Regional parties continue to play crucial roles.
Source: M. Laxmikanth; NCERT Class XII, 'Politics in India since Independence'; Political analyses, electoral data.
The Election Commission of India (ECI) is responsible for the registration and recognition of political parties, granting them various benefits.
Registration with ECI
Mandatory for all political parties under Representation of the People Act (RPA), 1951, Section 29A.
National Party Criteria
- Criterion 1: Secures at least 6% of total valid votes in any four or more states (LS/Assembly) AND wins at least 4 seats in Lok Sabha from any State(s).
- Criterion 2: Wins at least 2% of total seats in Lok Sabha (i.e., 11 seats) from at least three different states.
- Criterion 3: Is recognized as a State Party in at least four states.
State Party Criteria
- Criterion 1: Secures at least 6% of total valid votes in the State (LS/Assembly) AND wins at least 2 seats in the Assembly election.
- Criterion 2: Secures at least 6% of total valid votes in the State (LS/Assembly) AND wins at least 1 seat in the Lok Sabha from that State.
- Criterion 3: Wins at least 3% of the total seats in the Legislative Assembly of the State, or at least 3 seats, whichever is more.
- Criterion 4: Wins at least 1 seat in the Lok Sabha for every 25 seats or any fraction thereof allocated to that State in the Lok Sabha.
- Criterion 5: Secures at least 8% of the total valid votes polled in the State (recent additional criterion).
Benefits of Recognized Party Status
- Exclusive Allotment of Symbol: For use in all elections (National) or in the state (State).
- Free Broadcast Time: On state-owned TV (Doordarshan) and radio (All India Radio) during general elections.
- Consultation: By ECI in fixing election schedules and other electoral matters.
- Nomination: Only one proposer is needed for filing nomination papers (vs. ten for others).
- Star Campaigners: Allowed a larger number of 'star campaigners' (expenditure on whom is exempt from candidate's limits).
- Subsidized Land: Entitlement to subsidized land for party offices.
Source: RPA, 1951; Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968 (as amended); ECI website.
Summary Table: Recognition Criteria & Benefits
| Type of Party | Criteria (Any one) | Benefits (Common) |
|---|---|---|
| National Party |
|
Exclusive Symbol (All India), Free Broadcast Time, ECI Consultation, Star Campaigners, Subsidized Land for office. |
| State Party |
|
Exclusive Symbol (in State), Free Broadcast Time (in State), ECI Consultation (in State). |
Source: Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968 (as amended); ECI website.
Lack of Inner-Party Democracy
Decision-making often concentrated in the hands of a few top leaders. Lack of regular and fair organizational elections for party posts. This fuels dynastic succession and makes parties less accountable to their own members.
Source: Law Commission Reports, electoral reform discussions
Opacity in Funding
Parties rely heavily on opaque sources of funding, leading to concerns about quid pro quo and corruption. Role of Corporate Donations raises questions about undue influence in policy-making.
Source: Law Commission Reports, ADR reports
Criminalization of Politics
Increasing number of candidates with serious criminal cases contesting and winning elections. Concerns about the nexus between criminals and politicians, undermining the rule of law.
Source: ADR reports, Law Commission Reports
Dynastic Succession
Leadership positions often passed down through family lines rather than merit, stifling internal democracy and broader participation.
Source: Political analyses
Casteism & Communalism
Parties often appeal to caste and communal identities for electoral gains, leading to social polarization and undermining secular principles.
Source: Electoral studies, political analyses
Populism & Personality Cults
Tendency to make populist promises without considering economic viability. Over-reliance on charismatic leaders, reducing programmatic content and internal party debate.
Source: Political analyses
These persistent challenges undermine the democratic credentials of political parties and impact the health of India's political landscape.
Electoral Bonds Scheme (2018-2024)
Introduced in 2018, this scheme allowed individuals and corporates to donate money to political parties anonymously through interest-free bearer bonds.
Government Rationale:
- Claimed to promote transparency by moving cash donations to banking channels.
- Aimed to reduce black money in politics.
Key Criticisms:
- Promoted opacity: Donor's identity known only to the issuing bank and government, not the public.
- Led to quid pro quo and crony capitalism concerns.
- Allowed unlimited corporate funding.
SC Judgment (February 2024)
In a landmark judgment (Anoop Baranwal case), the Supreme Court declared the Electoral Bonds scheme **unconstitutional**.
It held that the scheme violated citizens' **right to information** (a facet of freedom of speech and expression under Art 19(1)(a)).
The Court directed the Election Commission of India (ECI) to publish all data on electoral bond purchases and redemptions received from State Bank of India (SBI).
Source: Law Commission Reports, ADR reports, SC judgment (Anoop Baranwal case, February 2024).
- State Funding of Elections: Providing financial assistance from the state to reduce reliance on private funding.
- Internal Democracy Audits: Mandating regular, fair, and transparent organizational elections within parties, with oversight.
- Stricter Laws against Criminalization: Disqualifying candidates facing serious criminal charges, speeding up trials for politicians.
- Regulation of Party Finances: Mandatory audit of party accounts, greater transparency in donations, bringing parties under RTI (though ECI's attempt was struck down by CIC).
- State Regulation of Political Parties: Law Commission (2015) recommended regulating political parties under a separate law and bringing them under RTI.
- Strengthening Anti-Defection Law: To ensure ideological cohesion and prevent opportunistic defections.
- Encouraging Programmatic Politics: Moving away from personality cults towards policy-based debates.
Source: Law Commission Reports, Election Commission recommendations, ARC reports, various expert committees.
Conceptual Impact of Reforms on Transparency
Note: This chart is a conceptual representation of the potential impact of ongoing and proposed reforms on the transparency of political parties.
Mains-ready Analytical Notes
Political Parties as Pillars of Democracy:
Political parties are indispensable for the functioning of a representative democracy. They connect citizens to the government, articulate diverse interests, facilitate policy formation, and provide a mechanism for holding the executive accountable. Without them, a democracy would fragment into a collection of unorganized individuals.
Evolution of Party System: From Dominance to Multi-Polarity:
The transition from the 'Congress System' (one-party dominance) to a fragmented multi-party system and then to the coalition era, and now trending towards bi-nodal competition, reflects the increasing complexity and maturity of Indian democracy. Each phase presented unique governance challenges (e.g., stability in coalitions) and impacts on the role of regional parties.
Challenges to Democratic Functioning of Parties:
- Lack of Inner-Party Democracy: Leads to centralized decision-making, stifled dissent, and dynastic politics.
- Opacity in Political Funding: Fuels corruption, corporate influence, and undermines electoral integrity. The SC's judgment on Electoral Bonds is a landmark step towards transparency.
- Criminalization of Politics: Erodes the moral fabric of democracy, affects governance quality.
- Identity Politics: Over-reliance on caste and communal appeals leads to social polarization.
- Populism: Prioritizing short-term populist measures over long-term sustainable policies.
ECI's Role in Regulating Parties:
The ECI's powers to register and recognize parties, allot symbols, and enforce the Model Code of Conduct are crucial for regulating the party system and ensuring fair elections.
Contemporary Relevance & Reforms:
The Electoral Bonds Judgment (Feb 2024) is a defining moment for funding transparency. Ongoing debates on other reforms (internal democracy, decriminalization, 'One Nation, One Election') continue. The rise of social media also poses new challenges and opportunities for parties.
Source: Mains-ready Analytical Notes from Prompt
Trend Analysis & PYQs
Prelims Focus Areas:
- Recognition Criteria: Highly important. Questions frequently test the specific conditions for a party to be recognized as a 'National Party' or a 'State Party', often with specific percentages and seat numbers.
- Electoral Bonds: Extremely high priority due to the recent SC judgment. Questions will test its features, criticisms, and the specifics of the SC's ruling (unconstitutional, violation of Art 19(1)(a), direction to ECI/SBI).
- Evolution of Party System: Understanding the historical phases (Congress System, Coalition Era) and current trends (bi-nodal competition, resurgence of national parties).
- Functions of Parties: Knowing their basic roles in a democracy.
- Benefits of Recognition: Specific benefits like exclusive symbol, free broadcast time, star campaigners.
Mains Core Themes:
- Challenges to Democratic Functioning: This is a core analytical theme. Questions heavily focus on lack of inner-party democracy, opacity in political funding (Electoral Bonds), criminalization of politics, and dynasticism.
- Reforms for Political Parties: Discussing proposed solutions to address these challenges (state funding, internal democracy, decriminalization).
- Political Funding Debate: A crucial area for detailed analysis, especially post-Electoral Bonds judgment.
- Role in Democracy: Analytical discussion of their indispensable functions.
- Contemporary Relevance: Linking party dynamics to current political developments, major electoral reforms, and judicial interventions.
Source: Trend Analysis from Prompt
Selected PYQs (UPSC CSE)
UPSC CSE 2022 (MCQ): With reference to the Election Commission of India, consider the following statements:
- The Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners have equal powers but receive unequal salaries.
- The Chief Election Commissioner can be removed from office in the same manner and on the same grounds as a Judge of the Supreme Court.
- The Governor of a State appoints the State Election Commissioner.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only
UPSC CSE 2021 (Mains): "What are the Fundamental Duties provided in the Constitution of India? Examine the significance of these duties in a democratic society." (10 marks)
Hint: Political parties, as agents of political education, play a crucial role in making citizens aware of their fundamental duties, though sometimes they exploit divisions.
UPSC CSE 2018 (Mains): "Constitutional morality is rooted in the Constitution itself and is founded on the essential principles of the constitutional structure. Explain the doctrine of 'constitutional morality' with the help of relevant court cases." (15 marks)
Hint: The SC's judgment on Electoral Bonds (Anoop Baranwal) is a prime example of upholding constitutional morality by ensuring transparency in political funding.
Source: UPSC Previous Year Questions from Prompt
Original MCQs for Prelims
1. Which of the following conditions must a political party fulfill to be recognized as a National Party by the Election Commission of India?
- The party secures at least 6% of the total valid votes polled in a Lok Sabha election in any two or more states.
- The party wins at least 4 seats in the Lok Sabha from any State(s).
- The party wins at least 2% of the total seats in the Lok Sabha (i.e., 11 seats) from at least three different states.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 3 only
Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect (should be 4+ states). Statement 2 is incomplete as a standalone criterion (it's part of the first criterion with 6% votes). Statement 3 is correct as an independent criterion.
2. Consider the following statements regarding the Electoral Bonds Scheme:
- It allowed individuals and corporates to donate money to political parties through interest-free bearer bonds.
- The identity of the donor of an electoral bond was kept confidential from the public but was known to the issuing bank.
- The Supreme Court of India upheld the constitutionality of the scheme in February 2024, citing its transparency benefits.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 2 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation: Statement 1 and 2 are correct. Statement 3 is incorrect; the Supreme Court declared the scheme unconstitutional in February 2024.
Source: Original MCQs from Prompt
Original Descriptive Questions for Mains
1. "Political parties are the lifeblood of democracy, yet in India, their functioning often suffers from a democratic deficit, impacting their credibility and electoral integrity." Critically analyze the major challenges facing political parties in India, particularly focusing on the issues of inner-party democracy and political funding, and discuss how the recent Supreme Court judgment on Electoral Bonds impacts the landscape of party politics. (15 marks)
- Introduction: Indispensable role vs. democratic deficit.
- Challenges: Inner-party democracy (centralization, no elections, dynasticism), Political Funding (opacity, corporate influence, Electoral Bonds features/criticisms), Criminalization, Identity Politics, Populism.
- SC Judgment Impact: Unconstitutionality (Art 19(1)(a)), increased transparency, shifts in funding landscape, judiciary's role.
- Conclusion: Threat to democracy, necessity of comprehensive reforms.
2. "The evolution of the party system in India reflects its journey as a vibrant democracy, yet concerns persist regarding its ideological dilution and the impact of identity politics." Analyze the major phases of the Indian party system, discussing the contemporary trends and the functions of political parties in shaping public opinion and fostering national unity. (10 marks)
- Introduction: Role of parties, evolution, and concerns.
- Phases: One-party dominance, multi-party, coalition era, current bi-nodal trend.
- Functions (shaping public opinion): Articulation, policy formulation, political education, agenda setting, mobilization.
- Challenges (ideological dilution & identity politics): Lack of clear ideology, opportunistic alliances, exploitation of caste/communal identities, populism.
- Fostering National Unity: Aggregating diverse interests, national vs. regional party roles.
- Conclusion: Dynamic system with challenges, need for programmatic politics.
Source: Original Descriptive Questions from Prompt