Internal Security: Navigating India's Contemporary Challenges

Ensuring Peace, Order, and Development within a Nation's Borders

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Understanding Internal Security

Internal security is a critical aspect of national sovereignty, ensuring peace, order, and the rule of law within a country's borders, thereby enabling socio-economic development. India faces a multitude of complex and evolving internal security challenges. These include terrorism (cross-border, hinterland, and ideologically motivated), Left Wing Extremism (LWE), threats in cyberspace, challenges in border management (land and maritime), the sensitive situation in Jammu & Kashmir, and the pervasive issue of organized crime. These threats are often interlinked and exploit modern technology.

The Indian government has adopted a multi-pronged approach involving robust legal frameworks, specialized agencies, technological upgrades, intelligence sharing, and developmental initiatives to counter these challenges effectively.

Key Sources for Deeper Insight:

  • Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) Annual Reports
  • IDSA (Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses) publications
  • Standard reference books like "Challenges to Internal Security of India" by Ashok Kumar and Vipul.

Core Challenges & Responses

3.5.1. Terrorism

Terrorism is the unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political, religious, or ideological aims.

Types and Manifestations:

Cross-border terrorism

Primarily emanating from Pakistan, affecting J&K and Punjab. Involves infiltration, supply of arms, and financial support to terror groups. (Source: MHA Annual Report)

Hinterland/Urban terrorism

Targets major cities and economic centers, often by sleeper cells of global or regional terror outfits (e.g., Indian Mujahideen, Lashkar-e-Taiba, Jaish-e-Mohammed).

Radicalisation

Process of adopting extremist ideologies. Causes: Socio-economic grievances, political alienation, online propaganda (ISIS, Al-Qaeda), extremist preachers, historical narratives. Platforms: Online (social media, dark web) and local networks.

Financing of terrorism

Sources: State sponsorship, organized crime (narcotics, extortion), counterfeit currency, donations to front organizations, hawala networks, increasingly cryptocurrencies. (Source: FATF Reports)

Counter-terrorism Measures:

  • Legal Framework: Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967 (UAPA) - primary anti-terror law, amended 2019 (designation of individuals as terrorists).
  • Institutional Framework:
    • National Investigation Agency (NIA): Post-26/11, investigates terror offenses. NIA (Amendment) Act, 2019 expanded jurisdiction.
    • National Intelligence Grid (NATGRID): Links databases for intelligence access.
    • Multi Agency Centre (MAC) & Subsidiary MACs (SMACs): For real-time intelligence sharing.
    • National Security Guard (NSG): Elite counter-terrorism force.
    • State-level CT forces (e.g., Force One, Octopus).
  • Intelligence Sharing: Strengthening coordination between central and state agencies, international cooperation.
  • Countering Financing of Terrorism (CFT): Financial Intelligence Unit-India (FIU-IND), Enforcement Directorate (ED).
  • Deradicalisation strategies: Limited and evolving; community engagement, counselling (e.g., Maharashtra's program).

3.5.2. Left Wing Extremism (LWE)

Also known as Naxalism or Maoism, it is an ideology based on Maoist principles, seeking to overthrow the existing state through armed struggle.

Causes:

  • Socio-economic: Poverty, exploitation of tribal populations, land alienation, displacement, lack of basic services.
  • Governance Deficit: Poor implementation of laws (PESA, Forest Rights Act), corruption, administrative apathy, police excesses.
  • Ideological: Appeal of Maoist ideology promising an egalitarian society.
  • Geographical: Difficult terrain (forests, hills) provides sanctuary.

Impact:

  • Violence against security forces and civilians.
  • Destruction of infrastructure.
  • Hindrance to development activities.
  • Climate of fear, extortion rackets.
  • Internal displacement.

Government's Holistic Strategy:

  • National Policy and Action Plan (2015): Multi-pronged approach (security, development, rights, perception management).
  • SAMADHAN Doctrine (Announced 2017):
    • Smart Leadership
    • Aggressive Strategy
    • Motivation and Training
    • Actionable Intelligence
    • Dashboard Based KPIs and KRAs
    • Harnessing Technology
    • Action plan for each Theatre
    • No access to Financing
  • Security Measures: Modernization of police, CAPF deployment (CRPF, CoBRA), intelligence-based ops, fortified police stations.
  • Development Initiatives: Special Central Assistance (SCA), road construction (RRP-I, RCPLWEA), mobile connectivity, skill development (ROSHNI), Eklavya Model Residential Schools.
  • Rights and Entitlements: Effective implementation of PESA Act 1996 and Forest Rights Act 2006.
  • Recent Trends: Significant decline in LWE violence and geographical spread. Number of affected districts reduced. (Source: MHA Annual Report)

3.5.3. Cyber Security

Protection of information, equipment, devices, computer resources, communication device and information stored therein from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification or destruction.

Challenges:

Cybercrime

Phishing, identity theft, online fraud, hacking, ransomware, cyberstalking, child pornography.

Data Privacy Concerns

Unauthorized collection, use, sharing of personal data. Addressed by Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023.

Digital Infrastructure Protection

Securing Critical Information Infrastructure (CII) like banking, power grids, aviation, defense networks.

Cyber Espionage & Warfare

State-sponsored attacks for intelligence or to cripple infrastructure.

Disinformation & Fake News

Used to incite violence, create social unrest, influence political processes.

Dark Web & Cryptocurrencies

Used for illicit activities like drug trafficking, terror financing.

Government Measures & Policy:

  • National Cyber Security Policy, 2013: Aims to create a secure and resilient cyberspace. (New updated policy in discussion).
  • Institutional Framework:
    • Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In): Nodal agency for cyber security incidents.
    • National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC): For CII protection.
    • National Cyber Coordination Centre (NCCC): Situational awareness of cyber threats.
    • Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C): MHA initiative to combat cybercrime, includes National Cybercrime Reporting Portal.
    • Cyber Swachhta Kendra (Botnet Cleaning and Malware Analysis Centre).
  • Legal Framework: Information Technology Act, 2000 (amended 2008) addresses cybercrimes.
  • Capacity Building & Awareness: Training for law enforcement, professionals, public awareness campaigns.
  • International Cooperation: Bilateral and multilateral agreements.

3.5.4. Border Management

Securing India's vast and diverse borders is crucial for national security. India has over 15,000 km of land borders and a coastline of over 7,500 km.

Land Borders:

Challenges:
  • Porous borders: Difficult terrain (mountains, rivers, forests, deserts).
  • Disputed borders: With Pakistan and China, leading to standoffs, infiltration.
  • Illegal migration: From Bangladesh, Myanmar.
  • Smuggling: Narcotics, arms, counterfeit currency, cattle.
  • Cross-border terrorism and insurgency: Along LoC, India-Myanmar border.
Management Measures:
  • Border Fencing & Floodlighting: India-Pakistan and India-Bangladesh.
  • Border Outposts (BOPs) & Patrolling: By Border Guarding Forces (BSF, ITBP, SSB, Assam Rifles).
  • Technology Upgradation: Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System (CIBMS) - sensors, thermal imagers, radars, UAVs.
  • Infrastructure Development: Border roads (BRO), Integrated Check Posts (ICPs).
  • Bilateral cooperation with neighbors.

Coastal Security:

Threats:
  • Maritime terrorism (e.g., 26/11 Mumbai attacks).
  • Smuggling (drugs, arms, contraband).
  • Piracy (less near Indian coast, affects Indian shipping).
  • Illegal fishing and poaching.
  • Infiltration.
Management Measures (strengthened post-26/11):
  • Three-tier security structure: Indian Navy, Indian Coast Guard (ICG), State Coastal/Marine Police.
  • Indian Coast Guard (ICG): Nodal agency for coastal security.
  • National Committee for Strengthening Maritime and Coastal Security (NCSMCS): Apex body.
  • Coastal radar chains and AIS transponders.
  • Fishermen registration and biometric ID cards.
  • Joint coastal security exercises (e.g., Sagar Kavach).
  • Capacity building of marine police.

3.5.5. Jammu & Kashmir

A region facing decades of separatism and cross-border terrorism.

Abrogation of Article 370 & 35A (August 5, 2019):

  • Article 370 granted special autonomous status; Article 35A defined "permanent residents".
  • Government's Rationale: Full integration with India, end separatism/terrorism, promote economic development, ensure application of central laws/rights. (Source: Parliamentary debates, MHA statements)

Reorganisation of J&K into UTs:

  • The Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 bifurcated the erstwhile state into two Union Territories:
  • UT of Jammu & Kashmir (with a legislative assembly).
  • UT of Ladakh (without a legislative assembly).

Security Situation Post-Abrogation:

  • Initial lockdown and restrictions, gradual easing.
  • MHA data indicates decline in overall terrorist incidents, stone-pelting, infiltration.
  • Challenges remain: Targeted killings (civilians/minorities), local recruitment, drone-based smuggling (arms/drugs).
  • Hybrid terrorists (part-time militants) pose a new challenge. (Source: MHA Annual Reports, media reports)

Development Initiatives:

  • Prime Minister's Development Package (PMDP).
  • Focus on infrastructure (roads, tunnels, power), health, education, tourism.
  • New Industrial Development Scheme for J&K, efforts to attract investment/employment.
  • Implementation of central laws and schemes.
  • Current Affairs: Ongoing efforts for Assembly elections, delimitation exercise completed.

3.5.6. Organized Crime

Criminal activities planned and controlled by powerful groups and carried out on a large scale. Often transnational.

Types and Manifestations:

  • Human Trafficking: For sexual exploitation, forced labor, organ trade. India is a source, destination, transit country. (ITPA, proposed Trafficking in Persons Bill).
  • Narcotics Trade (Drug Trafficking): Proximity to "Golden Crescent" and "Golden Triangle." Fuels narco-terrorism. (NDPS Act, 1985; Agency: NCB).
  • Counterfeiting (Fake Indian Currency Notes - FICN): Used to finance terrorism, destabilize economy.
  • Arms trafficking, extortion, contract killings, cybercrime syndicates.

Linkages:

Organized crime often has strong nexuses with terrorism (providing funds, logistics) and corruption.

Challenges in Tackling:

  • Transnational nature requires international cooperation.
  • Use of technology (dark web, crypto) by criminals.
  • Corruption and nexus with influential people.
  • Lack of a comprehensive central law specifically for organized crime (some states have MCOCA).
  • Weaknesses in investigation and prosecution.

Measures:

  • Strengthening specialized agencies (NCB, NIA).
  • Improving inter-agency coordination.
  • International cooperation.
  • Financial investigations.

Prelims-ready Notes: Quick Revision

Challenge Key Aspects Key Agencies/Laws/Schemes
Terrorism Cross-border, Urban, Radicalisation, Terror Financing. UAPA, NIA, NATGRID, MAC, NSG, FATF guidelines.
LWE Socio-economic & governance deficit causes. Impacts development & security. SAMADHAN doctrine, National Policy & Action Plan (2015), SCA for LWE districts, PESA, FRA.
Cyber Security Cybercrime, Data Privacy, CII protection, Disinformation. IT Act 2000, National Cyber Security Policy 2013, CERT-In, NCIIPC, NCCC, I4C, Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023.
Border Mgmt Land: Porous, illegal migration, smuggling. Coastal: Maritime terror, drug trafficking. BSF, ITBP, SSB, AR; CIBMS. Indian Navy, ICG, Marine Police; Coastal Radar Chain, Sagar Kavach.
J&K Abrogation Art 370/35A (2019), Reorg into UTs (J&K, Ladakh). Security & development challenges. J&K Reorganisation Act 2019, PMDP for J&K.
Organized Crime Human trafficking, Narcotics, FICN, Arms trafficking. Nexus with terror. ITPA, NDPS Act, NCB. Need for central law (MCOCA-like).

Mains-ready Analytical Notes

Interlinkages between Internal Security Threats

Terrorism

Exploits vulnerabilities, targets civilians, political aims.

Organized Crime

Drug/arms trafficking, extortion, provides funds & logistics.

Left Wing Extremism

Exploits governance deficit, seeks state overthrow.

Cyber Threats

Radicalisation, communication, financing, data theft.

Porous Borders

Facilitates infiltration, smuggling, exacerbates threats.

Radicalisation

Common ideological thread, fuels extremist ideologies.

Terrorism-Organized Crime Nexus (finance, logistics), LWE-Organized Crime (extortion, illegal mining), Cybercrime-Terrorism (radicalisation, communication, financing), Porous Borders (infiltration, smuggling of arms/drugs/FICN), and Radicalisation (common thread across forms of extremism) highlight the complex and interconnected nature of these threats.

Role of Technology in Internal Security (Dual Edged Sword)

As a Threat Multiplier:

  • Cybercrime, use of drones by terrorists/smugglers.
  • Encrypted communication, online radicalisation.
  • Spread of disinformation, use of crypto for illicit finance.

As a Force Multiplier for Security Agencies:

  • Surveillance (CCTV, drones, CIBMS), data analytics (NATGRID).
  • Cyber forensics, secure communication networks, tracking financial trails.

Challenges in Countering Internal Security Threats

  • Centre-State Coordination: Law and order is a state subject.
  • Intelligence Gathering & Sharing: Timely and actionable intelligence issues.
  • Modernization of Police Forces: Need better training, equipment, infrastructure.
  • Criminal Justice System Reforms: Slow trials, low conviction rates.
  • Human Rights Concerns: Balancing security with fundamental rights (UAPA, AFSPA).
  • Community Participation: Lack of trust hinders intelligence and cooperation.

Importance of a Holistic Approach

  • Security measures alone are insufficient. Addressing root causes (socio-economic, governance, political) is vital.
  • Development, education, employment generation, ensuring justice and rights are key long-term solutions.
  • Government's LWE strategy (security + development) exemplifies this.

Border Management – Beyond Fencing

  • Technological solutions (CIBMS) supplemented by effective human patrolling, robust intelligence.
  • Socio-economic development of border areas to enlist local communities as stakeholders.
  • Bilateral and multilateral cooperation with neighboring countries.

Current Affairs & Recent Developments

Terrorism

  • Rise of "hybrid terrorists" in J&K.
  • Use of drones for smuggling arms/drugs from Pakistan.
  • Ongoing global efforts against terror financing (FATF).

LWE

  • MHA reports consistent decline in violence and geographical spread.
  • Focus on "Security Related Expenditure (SRE)" districts and development in final strongholds.

Cyber Security

  • Enactment of Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023.
  • Increased instances of AI-driven cyber-attacks (deepfakes, sophisticated phishing).
  • CERT-In advisories on new vulnerabilities.

Border Management

  • Increased focus on infrastructure along LAC with China.
  • Pilot projects of CIBMS being scaled up.
  • Challenges of managing India-Myanmar border post-coup in Myanmar.

J&K

  • Delimitation of assembly constituencies completed.
  • Government highlighting development projects and improved security metrics.
  • Targeted killings remain a concern. Possible Assembly elections in near future.

Organized Crime

  • Major drug seizures by NCB and coastal agencies.
  • Discussions on strengthening laws against human trafficking (e.g., Trafficking in Persons Bill).

UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims MCQs:

1. The SAMADHAN doctrine, sometimes seen in the news, is related to:
  • (a) Combating cybercrime and protecting critical information infrastructure.
  • (b) A multi-pronged strategy to tackle Left Wing Extremism.
  • (c) Strengthening coastal security and maritime surveillance.
  • (d) Counter-terrorism measures in urban areas.
Answer: (b)
Hint/Explanation: SAMADHAN is an acronym for a doctrine to counter LWE, encompassing Smart Leadership, Aggressive Strategy, Motivation, Actionable Intelligence, Dashboard KPIs, Harnessing Technology, Action plan, and No access to Financing.
2. With reference to the National Investigation Agency (NIA), consider the following statements:
1. It was established after the 26/11 Mumbai terror attacks.
2. It can investigate terror-related offenses committed outside India against Indian citizens or affecting the interest of India.
3. The NIA requires prior permission from the respective State Government to initiate an investigation in that state.
  • (a) 1 and 2 only
  • (b) 2 and 3 only
  • (c) 1 only
  • (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (a)
Hint/Explanation: Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is correct due to the NIA (Amendment) Act, 2019 which expanded its extraterritorial jurisdiction. Statement 3 is incorrect; NIA is a central agency and generally does not require prior state permission for scheduled offenses, though it informs the state.

Mains Questions:

1. Analyze the multidimensional challenges posed by external state and non-state actors to the internal security of India. Also, discuss the measures required to be taken to combat these threats. (UPSC CSE 2021)

Direction/Value Points:
  • Introduction: Define internal security and acknowledge external threats.
  • Challenges from State Actors: Cross-border terrorism sponsorship, cyber-attacks, border disputes, intelligence operations.
  • Challenges from Non-State Actors: Terror groups, insurgent groups with external links, organized crime syndicates, radicalising entities.
  • Multidimensional Nature: Political, economic, social, technological (cyber, drones).
  • Measures Required: Strengthening intelligence, robust border management, effective counter-terrorism laws/agencies, cyber security enhancement, international cooperation, addressing root causes, counter-radicalisation.
  • Conclusion: Need for a comprehensive, coordinated, and adaptive strategy.

2. Left Wing Extremism (LWE) is showing a downward trend, but still affects many parts of the country. Briefly explain the Government of India’s approach to counter the challenges posed by LWE. (UPSC CSE 2018)

Direction/Value Points:
  • Introduction: Briefly state the LWE problem and its recent trend.
  • Govt's Approach (Holistic): National Policy and Action Plan (2015), SAMADHAN doctrine (explain key elements).
  • Security Aspect: CAPF deployment, police modernization, intelligence ops.
  • Development Aspect: SCA, road connectivity, mobile towers, schools, skill development.
  • Rights & Entitlements: Focus on PESA, FRA implementation.
  • Surrender and Rehabilitation policies.
  • Conclusion: Multi-pronged strategy yielding results but continued efforts needed.

3. Discuss the types of organised crimes. Describe the linkages between terrorists and organised crime that exist at the national and transnational levels. (UPSC CSE 2019)

Direction/Value Points:
  • Introduction: Define organized crime.
  • Types: Drug trafficking, human trafficking, arms smuggling, extortion, FICN, cybercrime syndicates.
  • Linkages (Terrorism & Organized Crime): Financial (narco-terrorism, extortion), Logistical (smuggling arms, operatives), Shared tactics, Common operational areas.
  • National Level: Examples from India (e.g., D-Company links).
  • Transnational Level: Global terror outfits using international drug cartels, hawala networks.
  • Conclusion: Nexus poses formidable challenge requiring coordinated responses.

Trend Analysis (Past 10 Years)

UPSC question trends indicate analytical depth and contemporary relevance.

Prelims Trends:

Key doctrines/agencies/laws
Mandate & amendments
Conceptual understanding
Specific incidents

Mains Trends:

Analytical & comprehensive
Interlinkages
Contemporary Relevance
Role of Technology
Policy Evaluation
Holistic Approach

UPSC expects a well-rounded understanding of internal security issues, going beyond mere factual knowledge to include analytical depth, awareness of current developments, and a problem-solving orientation.

Original MCQs for Prelims

1. Which of the following statements best describes "Hybrid Terrorism," a term increasingly used in the context of security challenges in Jammu & Kashmir?
  • (a) Terrorist groups using a combination of conventional and cyber warfare tactics.
  • (b) Individuals who are not listed as terrorists but are radicalized and carry out attacks, often returning to normal life afterwards.
  • (c) Terrorist organizations that operate both as political entities and armed wings.
  • (d) Terrorist attacks that involve the use of both explosives and biological agents.
Answer: (b)
Explanation: Hybrid terrorists are individuals who are not on police or security agency radars, often radicalized online or locally, who carry out specific attacks and then try to meld back into normal society, making them difficult to track.
2. The "Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System (CIBMS)" being implemented by India primarily aims to:
  • (a) Create a unified command structure for all border guarding forces.
  • (b) Enhance surveillance and detection capabilities at the borders using advanced technology.
  • (c) Facilitate smoother trade and transit through integrated check posts.
  • (d) Promote socio-economic development in border villages to improve local intelligence.
Answer: (b)
Explanation: CIBMS is a technology-driven initiative to enhance surveillance capabilities along India's borders by integrating sensors, cameras, radar, UAVs, etc., to detect and interdict illegal activities and intrusions.
3. With reference to Cyber Security in India, consider the following pairs:
1. CERT-In : National nodal agency for responding to cyber security incidents.
2. NCIIPC : Body responsible for international cooperation on cybercrime.
3. I4C : Initiative to coordinate efforts against Left Wing Extremism using cyber tools.
  • (a) 1 only
  • (b) 1 and 2 only
  • (c) 2 and 3 only
  • (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (a)
Explanation: 1 is correct: CERT-In is the national nodal agency for cyber security incidents. 2 is incorrect: NCIIPC is for protecting CII. 3 is incorrect: I4C combats cybercrime in a comprehensive manner, not specifically LWE.

Original Descriptive Questions for Mains

1. "The challenges of radicalisation and terror financing are increasingly leveraging digital platforms, posing new complexities for India's counter-terrorism apparatus." Analyze this statement and suggest a multi-pronged strategy to address these evolving threats. (15 marks, 250 words)

Value Hints/Structure:
  • Introduction: Acknowledge traditional nature and new digital dimension.
  • Leveraging Digital Platforms: Social media for propaganda, encrypted communication, online gaming, dark web, AI for targeted content, cryptocurrencies, online crowdfunding.
  • Complexities for CT Apparatus: Anonymity, global reach, speed, jurisdictional issues, tech gap, balancing security with privacy.
  • Multi-pronged Strategy: Technological (AI-based monitoring, data analytics, cyber forensics, tech company collaboration), Legal/Regulatory (updating laws, crypto regulation, international agreements), Intelligence (cyber intelligence, international intel sharing), Capacity Building, Counter-narratives & Community Engagement.
  • Conclusion: Dynamic and adaptive strategy crucial.

2. Effective border management is not merely about fencing and patrolling but requires a holistic approach encompassing technology, inter-agency coordination, and local community engagement. Discuss in the context of India's land border challenges. (15 marks, 250 words)

Value Hints/Structure:
  • Introduction: Importance of border management, limitations of physical barriers.
  • Limitations of Fencing/Patrolling: Porous terrain, costs, maintenance, alienation.
  • Role of Technology (CIBMS): Sensors, UAVs, thermal imagers for surveillance, early warning.
  • Inter-Agency Coordination: Between BGFs, state police, intelligence, customs, immigration; seamless information sharing.
  • Local Community Engagement: Border populations as "eyes and ears," building trust, socio-economic development (BADP).
  • Other aspects: Infrastructure development, diplomatic engagement, effective trade management.
  • Conclusion: Multi-layered, integrated strategy combining technology, human resources, cooperation, and community participation.

Conclusion & Way Forward

India's internal security landscape is characterized by diverse, dynamic, and often interlinked threats that demand a continuous and adaptive response. From combating terrorism and LWE to securing cyberspace, managing borders effectively, ensuring stability in J&K, and tackling organized crime, the challenges are significant. The government's approach has been evolving towards a more holistic model that combines robust security measures with developmental initiatives, technological upgrades, legal reforms, and inter-agency coordination.

Significance & Way Forward:

  • National Integrity and Development: Internal security is a prerequisite for national unity, territorial integrity, and sustained socio-economic progress.
  • Strengthening Federal Cooperation: Enhanced Centre-State coordination is vital as law and order is a state subject, but many threats have national implications.
  • Capacity Building: Continuous modernization and capacity building of police forces and intelligence agencies are essential.
  • Technology Adoption: Leveraging advanced technologies (AI, Big Data, Drones) for security while ensuring ethical use and privacy protection.
  • Community Policing and Participation: Building trust and involving communities in vigilance and problem-solving.
  • Criminal Justice Reforms: Expediting trials and improving conviction rates to create a stronger deterrent.
  • International Cooperation: Strengthening collaboration with friendly nations to tackle transnational threats.
  • Addressing Root Causes: Focusing on inclusive development, justice, and good governance to address grievances.

A proactive, intelligence-led, and people-centric approach, coupled with a strong political will and robust institutional mechanisms, is crucial for effectively managing India's complex internal security challenges in the contemporary era.