Navigating the 19th Century
The 19th century in Europe is often termed the "Age of Nationalism." Nationalism, an ideology emphasizing loyalty, devotion, or allegiance to a nation or nation-state and holding that such obligations outweigh other individual or group interests, profoundly reshaped the political map of Europe.
It evolved from Enlightenment ideals of popular sovereignty (civic nationalism) to include notions of shared ethnicity, language, and culture (ethnic nationalism). This powerful force led to the unification of fragmented territories like Italy and Germany, while simultaneously posing existential threats to multi-ethnic empires like the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires. The rise of nationalism created new nation-states, intensified international rivalries, and sowed the seeds for future global conflicts, including World War I.
Core Concepts & Unifications
2.1.1: Defining Nationalism: Evolution from Civic to Ethnic
Nationalism is a complex ideology asserting that a nation—defined by shared culture, language, history, or ethnicity—should govern itself, free from outside interference (self-determination) and that its political boundaries should be coterminous with its cultural boundaries.
- Emerged from the Enlightenment and the French Revolution.
- Defines the nation as an association of people who subscribe to common political values, citizenship, and laws, regardless of ethnicity or origin.
- Emphasis on popular sovereignty, individual rights, and allegiance to the state and its institutions.
- Examples: French concept of 'la patrie', American nationalism based on shared ideals of liberty and democracy.
- Key Thinkers: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (social contract), Ernest Renan ("What is a Nation?" - a daily plebiscite).
- Source: NCERT Class 10 (Ch 1), IGNOU (Modern Europe)
- Gained prominence with Romanticism in the late 18th and 19th centuries.
- Defines the nation based on shared heredity, ethnicity, language, religion, and cultural traditions (Volksgeist - spirit of the people, associated with Johann Gottfried Herder).
- Can be exclusive and has, at times, led to xenophobia and conflict.
- Examples: German nationalism emphasizing shared German language and culture, Slavic Pan-Slavism.
- Source: IGNOU (Modern Europe), Norman Lowe, "Mastering Modern World History."
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2.1.1.1: Factors Promoting Nationalism
French Revolution (1789-1799)
Popularized concepts of sovereignty residing in the people (the nation), citizenship, and the nation-state. Ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) fostered a collective identity. Revolutionary wars spread these ideas across Europe.
Source: NCERT Class 10 (Ch 1)Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815)
While Napoleon spread revolutionary ideals, his conquests also provoked nationalist resistance in occupied territories (e.g., Spain, German states, Italy). Administrative reforms fostered a sense of shared identity or opposition.
Source: NCERT Class 10 (Ch 1), IGNOU (Modern Europe)Romanticism (late 18th - mid 19th Century)
Emphasized emotion, intuition, and the glorification of past and nature. Romantic nationalists promoted unique folk cultures, languages, traditions, and shared history (Volksgeist) as the basis of national identity.
Source: NCERT Class 10 (Ch 1)Print Culture
Proliferation of newspapers, books, and pamphlets in vernacular languages disseminated nationalist ideas, creating "imagined communities" (Benedict Anderson) where people felt connected through shared narratives.
Source: NCERT Class 10 (Ch 1), Benedict Anderson, "Imagined Communities."Industrial Revolution
Improved communication (railways, telegraph) facilitated interaction and a sense of shared economic interest within national boundaries. Economic competition between industrializing nations also fueled national rivalries.
Role of Education
Standardized language and curriculum in schools helped inculcate national loyalty and a shared historical narrative among the populace.
2.1.1.2: Liberal vs. Conservative Nationalism
Liberal Nationalism
- Dominant in the first half of the 19th century.
- Advocated for national self-determination, popular sovereignty, constitutional government, and individual freedoms.
- Associated with figures like Giuseppe Mazzini.
- Generally inclusive (civic in nature) in its early forms.
Conservative Nationalism
- Gained prominence in the latter half of the 19th century.
- Used by ruling elites to consolidate power, promote state interests, and foster loyalty to the monarchy or established order.
- Emphasized tradition, order, military strength, and national glory.
- Could be aggressive, expansionist, and exclusive (often ethnic in nature). Associated with Otto von Bismarck, Russification.
2.1.2: Unification of Italy (Risorgimento)
Italy, a patchwork of kingdoms and states, many under foreign (Austrian) control, underwent a protracted process of unification known as the Risorgimento ("resurgence").
2.1.2.1: Key Figures
| Figure | Role & Contribution | Organization/Movement |
|---|---|---|
| Giuseppe Mazzini | The "Soul" of Italian unification. Republican idealist, advocated for a united Italian republic through popular uprising. | Young Italy (1831) |
| Camillo Cavour | The "Brain." Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia. Pragmatic statesman, used diplomacy, alliances, and war to unite Italy under Piedmontese leadership. | Piedmont-Sardinia |
| Giuseppe Garibaldi | The "Sword." Charismatic military leader, led the "Red Shirts" in the conquest of Sicily and Naples (Expedition of the Thousand, 1860). | Red Shirts |
| Victor Emmanuel II | King of Piedmont-Sardinia, became the first King of a united Italy in 1861. | Piedmont-Sardinia |
2.1.2.2: Role of Piedmont-Sardinia and Foreign Assistance
Piedmont-Sardinia's Leadership
- The only Italian state ruled by an Italian dynasty (House of Savoy).
- Possessed a constitutional monarchy and a relatively liberal political environment under King Victor Emmanuel II.
- Cavour's Reforms: Modernized the economy, built railways, strengthened the army, making Piedmont the strongest Italian state.
Foreign Assistance
- Franco-Sardinian Alliance (1858): Secured French aid against Austria, leading to Lombardy annexation (1859).
- British Neutrality/Support: Favored a united Italy as a counterbalance.
- Prussian Indirect Help: Wars against Austria (1866) and France (1870) allowed Italy to annex Venetia and Papal States respectively.
2.1.2.3: Challenges and Consequences of Unification
Challenges
- Regionalism and Disparities: Economic and cultural differences (North vs. South).
- Papal Opposition: The Pope refused to recognize the new state after Rome's annexation (resolved 1929).
- Limited Franchise: Restricted suffrage alienated many.
- Social Unrest and Brigandage: Especially in the impoverished South.
- Language: Standard Italian not widely spoken.
Consequences
- Creation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 (Rome added in 1870, Venetia in 1866).
- Emergence of Italy as a new, though initially weak, European power.
- Inspired other nationalist movements.
- Ongoing social and economic problems, particularly the North-South divide.
2.1.3: Unification of Germany
Germany, a loose confederation of 39 states (German Confederation) since the Congress of Vienna (1815), was unified under Prussian leadership.
2.1.3.1: Role of Prussia and Otto von Bismarck
Prussia's Dominance
- Largest and most powerful German state, with a strong military, efficient bureaucracy, and industrialized economy.
- Zollverein (1834): A customs union initiated by Prussia, fostering economic integration and Prussian influence by removing internal tariffs.
Otto von Bismarck
- The "Iron Chancellor," master of Realpolitik – focused on practical considerations of national interest and power.
- Believed unification would be achieved not "by speeches and majority resolutions... but by blood and iron" (military force and industrial strength).
- Skillfully manipulated international rivalries and provoked wars.
2.1.3.2: Wars of Unification (Timeline)
Danish War (1864)
Prussia's Opponent(s): Denmark
Key Outcome: Prussia (with Austria) gained control of Schleswig and Holstein. Created pretext for future conflict with Austria.
Austro-Prussian War (Seven Weeks' War) (1866)
Prussia's Opponent(s): Austria & allies
Key Outcome: Decisive Prussian victory. Austria excluded from German affairs. Formation of North German Confederation (1867) under Prussian leadership.
Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)
Prussia's Opponent(s): France
Key Outcome: Prussian/German victory. Southern German states joined. Annexation of Alsace-Lorraine. Proclamation of German Empire.
2.1.3.3: Proclamation of German Empire (1871)
Following the victory over France, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor (Kaiser) on January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, France.
This act symbolized the culmination of German unification and the humiliation of France.
2.1.3.4: Impact on European Balance of Power
- The emergence of a powerful, industrialized, and militaristic German Empire in the heart of Europe dramatically altered the balance of power.
- Decline of Austrian and French Influence: Austria weakened; France suffered a humiliating defeat, loss of territory, and sought revenge.
- New Rivalries: Anglo-German naval rivalry, Franco-German antagonism over Alsace-Lorraine.
- Alliance Systems: Bismarck skillfully created a complex system of alliances to maintain peace and isolate France (e.g., Dreikaiserbund, Dual Alliance, Triple Alliance). However, after his dismissal (1890), Germany's aggressive foreign policy (Weltpolitik) contributed to rival blocs (Triple Entente) that eventually led to WWI.
2.1.4: Nationalism in Multi-Ethnic Empires
The rise of nationalism posed a severe threat to the integrity of Europe's large multi-ethnic empires, often leading to their eventual dissolution.
Austro-Hungarian Empire
- Vast empire ruled by Habsburgs, comprising numerous ethnic groups: Germans, Magyars, Czechs, Poles, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, Romanians, Italians.
- Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867: Reorganized into Dual Monarchy, granting Hungarians significant autonomy.
- Slav Nationalism: Aspirations largely ignored, fueled by Pan-Slavism (often encouraged by Russia), leading to instability. Serbian nationalism clashed with Austro-Hungarian interests in the Balkans.
Ottoman Empire
- Often dubbed the "Sick Man of Europe" due to declining power and administrative inefficiency.
- Balkan Nationalism: Greeks, Serbs, Romanians, Bulgarians, Albanians agitated for independence (e.g., Greece 1830, Serbia 1878).
- Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1876): Failed attempts at modernization and creating a common Ottoman identity.
- Young Turks (1908): Promoted Turkish nationalism (Turkification), further alienating non-Turkish minorities.
Russian Empire
- Vast autocratic empire under the Tsars, encompassing numerous ethnic groups (Poles, Finns, Ukrainians, Baltic peoples).
- Russification: Policy by Tsars Alexander III and Nicholas II to impose Russian language, culture, and Orthodox religion on non-Russian minorities.
- This policy often backfired, fueling resentment and strengthening nationalist movements (e.g., Polish Uprisings 1830-31, 1863-64, brutally suppressed).
2.1.5: Consequences of Ascendant Nationalism
2.1.5.1: Creation of New Nation-States
- Formation of Italy (1861/1870) and Germany (1871).
- Independence of Balkan states (Greece, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania) from Ottoman rule.
- Fulfilled aspirations for self-determination for some groups.
2.1.5.2: Intensification of International Rivalries
- Nation-states competed for economic resources, colonial possessions (imperialism), military supremacy, and prestige.
- Fueled an arms race (e.g., Anglo-German naval rivalry).
- Led to rigid military alliance systems (Triple Alliance, Triple Entente).
- Promoted aggressive foreign policies and jingoism.
2.1.5.3: Seeds of Future Conflicts
- Irredentism: The desire to annex territories inhabited by people of the same nationality but living under foreign rule (e.g., Italian desire for Trentino and Trieste in Austria-Hungary; Serbian desire for Bosnia).
- Balkan Crises: The Balkans became a "powder keg" due to competing nationalist aspirations and the interference of great powers.
- Bosnian Crisis (1908): Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, angering Serbia.
- Balkan Wars (1912-1913): Further destabilized the region and intensified Austro-Serbian rivalry.
- The assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo (Bosnia) by a Serb nationalist in June 1914 directly triggered World War I, which was, in many ways, a culmination of 19th-century nationalist tensions.
Europe: c. 1815 vs. c. 1914 (Conceptual Visual)
This conceptual visual represents the dramatic political landscape changes across Europe. Post-Congress of Vienna (1815), the map was a mosaic of fragmented states and expansive multi-ethnic empires. By 1914, the unified nation-states of Italy and Germany dominated, while empires like Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had significantly shrunk and fractured due to intense nationalist pressures, setting the imminent stage for global conflict.
Conclusion & Significance
Nineteenth-century European nationalism was a transformative ideology with a dual legacy. It was a force for liberation and unification, leading to the creation of modern nation-states and fulfilling the aspirations of millions for self-rule.
However, it also bred exclusion, competition, aggression, and the oppression of minorities within new or existing states. The rivalries and tensions engendered by unchecked nationalism, particularly in its more aggressive ethnic forms, played a crucial role in the outbreak of World War I. Understanding this era is vital for comprehending the modern state system, the nature of national identity, the causes of international conflict, and the ongoing challenges of managing diversity within nations and relations between them.
Prelims-Ready Notes
Nationalism Basics
- Civic: Shared citizenship, laws, political values (French Revolution).
- Ethnic: Shared culture, language, heritage (Volksgeist) (German Romanticism).
Factors Promoting
- French Rev (Popular sovereignty), Napoleonic Wars (resistance).
- Romanticism (folk culture), Print Culture ("imagined communities").
- Industrial Revolution (communication, economic ties).
Italian Unification
- Figures: Mazzini ("soul"), Cavour ("brain"), Garibaldi ("sword"), Victor Emmanuel II.
- Leader: Piedmont-Sardinia. Foreign Aid: France, Prussia (indirect).
- Timeline: Kingdom 1861, Venetia 1866, Rome 1870.
German Unification
- Leader: Prussia. Bismarck: "Iron Chancellor", Realpolitik, "blood and iron".
- Wars: Danish (1864), Austro-Prussian (1866), Franco-Prussian (1870-71).
- Proclamation: Jan 18, 1871 (Versailles). Impact: Shifted power.
Empires Under Threat
- Austro-Hungarian: Dual Monarchy (1867), Slav nationalism.
- Ottoman: "Sick Man," Balkan independence, Turkification.
- Russian: Russification, Polish Uprisings.
Consequences & WWI Seeds
- New nation-states. Intensified rivalries, arms race, alliances.
- Irredentism. Balkan Crises (1908 Bosnian, 1912-13 Balkan Wars).
- Sarajevo assassination (1914) -> WWI.
Comparative Analysis
Table 1: Civic vs. Ethnic Nationalism
| Feature | Civic Nationalism | Ethnic Nationalism |
|---|---|---|
| Basis | Shared citizenship, political ideals, laws | Shared ethnicity, language, culture, heritage (Volksgeist) |
| Inclusivity | Generally more inclusive | Can be exclusive |
| Origin | Enlightenment, French Revolution | Romanticism |
| Example | France (post-Revolution), USA | 19th C. German nationalism, Pan-Slavism |
Table 2: Key Aspects of Italian and German Unification
| Aspect | Italian Unification (Risorgimento) | German Unification |
|---|---|---|
| Leader State | Piedmont-Sardinia | Prussia |
| Key Architect | Camillo Cavour (diplomacy) | Otto von Bismarck (Realpolitik, war) |
| Ideological Force | Mazzini (republicanism, popular fervour) | Economic nationalism (Zollverein), Prussian militarism |
| Military Hero | Giuseppe Garibaldi (Red Shirts) | Prussian Army (Moltke) |
| Key Foreign Aid | France (vs. Austria), Prussia (indirectly) | Russia (neutrality), Italy (ally vs. Austria) |
| Major Wars | Austro-Sardinian (1859), campaigns in South (1860) | Danish (1864), Austro-Prussian (1866), Franco-Prussian (1870-71) |
| Year of Unity | 1861 (Kingdom), 1870 (Rome) | 1871 (Empire) |
| Major Challenge | North-South divide, Papal States | Integrating diverse states, balancing power |
Mains-Ready Analytical Notes
Major Debates/Discussions
- Civic vs. Ethnic Nationalism: Discuss pros/cons, exclusivity. 19th century shift towards ethnic, leading to conflict (e.g., Balkans 1990s).
- Unification: Top-Down or Bottom-Up?: Italy (mix of Cavour's top-down and Mazzini/Garibaldi's bottom-up), Germany (largely top-down, Bismarck's statecraft).
- Realpolitik: Necessary Evil or Amoral Doctrine?: Effective for national goals (Germany), but disregards morality; can lead to aggression (e.g., Ems Telegram manipulation). Source: Henry Kissinger's views on Bismarck.
Historical/Long-term Trends, Continuity & Changes
- Shift from Dynastic to National States: Decisive move from dynastic rule to national identity-based states.
- Nationalism as both Unifying and Divisive: Unified Italy/Germany but fragmented multi-ethnic empires. This duality persists.
- The Nation-State as the Norm: Dominant political organization model, influenced anti-colonial movements.
- Continuity of Nationalist Conflicts: Unresolved 19th-century issues contributed to 20th-century conflicts and some persist today.
Contemporary Relevance/Significance/Impact
- Resurgence of Nationalism: Populist, exclusionary sentiments seen globally (Brexit, "America First", right-wing parties in Europe).
- Self-Determination Movements: Aspirations continue (Catalonia, Scotland, Kurds).
- Ethnic Conflicts: Many contemporary conflicts have ethnic nationalist dimensions (former Yugoslavia, Russia-Ukraine, Rohingya Crisis). Source: UN Reports, Human Rights Watch.
- Challenges to Supranationalism: Nationalism can challenge organizations like the EU.
- India's Experience: Anti-colonial struggle as civic/inclusive nationalism. Post-independence challenges of sub-nationalism. Refer to Bipan Chandra for Indian nationalism.
Integration of Value-Added Points
- Ernest Renan's "What is a Nation?" (1882): Nation as a "daily plebiscite," emphasizing shared will and collective memory over race/language (civic/voluntarist perspective).
- Concept of Irredentism: Remains relevant in modern territorial disputes (e.g., China's claims in South China Sea, Nagorno-Karabakh conflict).
Current Affairs & Legacies
Historical Memory & National Identity (Ongoing)
- Debates over historical statues, monuments, and narratives (e.g., related to colonialism or controversial historical figures) are often fueled by competing nationalist interpretations of the past. For instance, discussions surrounding the 175th anniversary of the 1848 Revolutions (in 2023) in Europe often touch upon the early phases of liberal nationalism and their unfulfilled promises or complex legacies.
Nationalism and Geopolitics (Ongoing)
- Russia-Ukraine War: Continues to demonstrate the potent force of nationalism. Russia's justification often invokes historical claims and protection of Russian-speaking populations, a form of ethnic/irredentist nationalism. Ukrainian resistance is fueled by a strong sense of national identity and sovereignty. Sources: Major international newspapers, academic journals like Foreign Affairs.
- Tensions in the Balkans: Often flare up (e.g., between Serbia and Kosovo, or in Bosnia-Herzegovina), rooted in the complex web of ethnic nationalisms that were central to the region's history in the 19th and 20th centuries. Recent EU and NATO efforts aim to stabilize the region. Sources: Balkan Insight, EU reports.
New Interpretations/Academic Focus
- There is ongoing academic work reassessing the impact of nationalism, particularly its links to populism and its role in challenging liberal democratic norms. Books and articles published in the last year continue to explore these themes, drawing parallels with historical precedents from the 19th and 20th centuries.
UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Prelims MCQs:
Which one of the following was not a feature of the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’ associated with Bismarck? (UPSC CAPF 2009, similar concepts tested in CSE)
- (a) Reliance on military power
- (b) Unification of Germany with the help of liberals and democrats
- (c) Use of war for achievement of political goals
- (d) Building up a strong army
Hint/Explanation: Bismarck's "Blood and Iron" policy emphasized military strength and warfare (Realpolitik) and often sidelined or suppressed liberal and democratic forces to achieve Prussian-led German unification.
The ‘Young Italy’ movement was founded by: (Hypothetical, based on common knowledge tested)
- (a) Camillo Cavour
- (b) Giuseppe Garibaldi
- (c) Giuseppe Mazzini
- (d) Victor Emmanuel II
Hint/Explanation: Giuseppe Mazzini was the founder of "Young Italy" (La Giovine Italia) in 1831, an organization dedicated to unifying Italy as a republic.
Consider the following events: (Similar chronology questions appear)
- Proclamation of the German Empire
- Austro-Prussian War
- Formation of the North German Confederation
- Franco-Prussian War
What is the correct chronological order of these events?
- (a) 2-3-4-1
- (b) 2-4-3-1
- (c) 4-2-3-1
- (d) 2-3-1-4
Hint/Explanation: Austro-Prussian War (1866) -> North German Confederation (1867) -> Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) -> Proclamation of German Empire (Jan 1871).
Mains Questions:
"The rise of nationalism in 19th century Europe was both a force for unification and division." Discuss with examples. (Similar to UPSC thematic questions)
Direction: Introduce nationalism. Explain how it led to unification (Italy, Germany). Then explain how it led to division/disintegration (Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, Russian empires; tensions between new nation-states). Conclude on its dual legacy.
What were the main stages and obstacles in the unification of Italy? How did Cavour’s diplomacy contribute to its success? (Based on UPSC question patterns on unification movements)
Direction: Briefly outline pre-unification Italy. Stages: early Mazzinian idealism, Cavour's Piedmont-led efforts (diplomacy, wars like 1859), Garibaldi's southern campaign, final annexations. Obstacles: Austrian control, Papal opposition, regional differences, foreign interests. Cavour's role: strengthening Piedmont, strategic alliances (France), isolating Austria, managing Garibaldi.
"Bismarck united Germany not by majority votes and resolutions but by ‘blood and iron’." Elucidate this statement. (Direct quote-based question, common in UPSC)
Direction: Explain Bismarck's political philosophy of Realpolitik. Detail his use of military force (the "iron" of industry and "blood" of warfare) through the three wars of unification (Danish, Austro-Prussian, Franco-Prussian). Contrast this with the failure of liberal attempts at unification (e.g., Frankfurt Parliament 1848). Acknowledge the role of existing nationalist sentiment but emphasize Bismarck's pragmatic and power-oriented approach.