The Great War: World War I (1914-1918)

Introduction & Summary

World War I (WWI), also known as the Great War, was a global conflict originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. It involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom, France, and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy; Italy later joined the Allies).

The war was unprecedented in its scale, brutality, and the extent of societal mobilization ("total war"). It led to the mobilization of over 70 million military personnel, making it one of the largest wars in history, and also one of the deadliest conflicts, with an estimated nine million combatant and seven million civilian deaths as a direct result of the war. WWI fundamentally reshaped the political, social, economic, and cultural landscape of the world, leading to the collapse of empires, the redrawing of national borders, the rise of new ideologies, and setting the stage for World War II.

Source: Composite understanding from NCERT Class IX/X - India and the Contemporary World I/II, IGNOU BA History (Modern Europe), Norman Lowe - Mastering Modern World History

Causes and Underlying Tensions

The causes of WWI were complex and multifaceted, often summarized by the mnemonic M.A.N.I.A.

1. Militarism & Arms Race

Belief in maintaining a strong military and using it aggressively.

Massive military buildup across Europe.
Anglo-German Naval Race (HMS Dreadnought).
Increased influence of military leaders.

2. Alliance System & Secret Diplomacy

Bipolarization of Europe into rigid defensive pacts.

Triple Alliance (Germany, A-H, Italy).
Triple Entente (France, Russia, UK).
Fostered suspicion, reduced flexibility.

3. Aggressive Nationalism

Intense national pride, often leading to desire for glory/revenge.

French Revanchism (Alsace-Lorraine).
Pan-Slavism (Russia supporting Serbia).
Pan-Germanism (German expansionism).

4. Imperialist Rivalries

Competition for colonies, raw materials, and markets.

Scramble for Africa & Asia.
Germany's "Weltpolitik" (place in the sun).
Moroccan Crises (1905, 1911) escalating tensions.

5. Assassination of Franz Ferdinand

The immediate spark that ignited the systemic tensions into war.

June 28, 1914: Archduke Franz Ferdinand and Sophie assassinated in Sarajevo.
Perpetrator: Gavrilo Princip (Bosnian Serb Nationalist, Black Hand).
Austria-Hungary issues ultimatum to Serbia with German "blank cheque."
Declaration of war triggers alliance system into global conflict.

The Balkan "Powder Keg"

The decline of the Ottoman Empire created a power vacuum in the Balkans, leading to intense nationalism and multiple crises (Balkan Wars 1912-1913). Austria-Hungary feared Serbian expansionism supported by Russia, making the region a volatile flashpoint.

Course of the War

Western Front: Trench Warfare

Characterized by a static line of trenches from Swiss border to North Sea after initial German advance was halted at the First Battle of the Marne (Sept 1914).

**Stalemate:** Defensive weapons (machine guns, barbed wire) superior to offensive tactics.
**Horrific Casualties:** Minimal territorial gains at immense human cost.
**Major Battles:** Verdun (1916), Somme (1916), Passchendaele (1917).

Eastern Front: Russian Collapse

More fluid and covered vast territory, but ultimately saw Russian defeat and withdrawal.

Initial Russian advances repelled at Tannenberg (1914).
Massive Russian casualties, economic hardship, and internal unrest.
Led to Russian Revolution (1917) and withdrawal.

New Technologies of Warfare

Machine Guns

Dominated battlefields, making frontal assaults deadly.

Poison Gas

Chlorine, phosgene, mustard gas; caused horrific injuries.

Tanks

Introduced by British (Somme, 1916) to break trench stalemates.

Airplanes

Initially reconnaissance, later bombing and "dogfights".

Submarines (U-boats)

Used extensively by Germany for unrestricted submarine warfare.

Artillery

More powerful and accurate, causing immense destruction.

US Entry into the War (1917)

Initial US neutrality gave way due to several critical events:

**Sinking of Lusitania (May 1915):** British passenger liner sunk by German U-boat, killing 128 Americans, causing public outrage.
**Unrestricted Submarine Warfare (Feb 1917):** Germany resumed sinking merchant ships without warning, directly threatening US shipping and lives.
**Zimmermann Telegram (Jan 1917):** Secret German proposal to Mexico for alliance against US, intercepted and publicized, enraged American public opinion.
**Ideological Commitment:** President Wilson's desire to shape post-war world based on democracy.

Russian Withdrawal (1917-1918)

Internal strife led to Russia's exit, significantly altering the war's balance:

**Internal Problems:** Massive casualties, economic hardship, food shortages, and administrative inefficiency.
**February Revolution (1917):** Overthrew Tsar Nicholas II, established Provisional Government which continued the war.
**October (Bolshevik) Revolution (Nov 1917):** Led by Lenin and Bolsheviks, promising "Peace, Land, and Bread."
**Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918):** Bolsheviks signed separate peace with Central Powers, ceding vast territories and paying indemnity. Allowed Germany to shift troops to Western Front.

Major Powers, Leaders & Ideologies

Central Powers

Germany: Kaiser Wilhelm II; Generals: Hindenburg, Ludendorff.
Austria-Hungary: Emperor Franz Joseph, later Charles I.
Ottoman Empire: Sultan Mehmed V; Leaders: Enver Pasha, Talaat Pasha.
Bulgaria: Joined in 1915.

Allied Powers (Principal)

Great Britain: King George V; PMs: Asquith, Lloyd George.
France: President Poincaré; PMs: Clemenceau; Generals: Joffre, Foch.
Russia: Tsar Nicholas II (until 1917); Provisional Govt; then Bolsheviks.
Italy: Joined 1915; King Victor Emmanuel III.
United States: Joined 1917; President Woodrow Wilson; General Pershing.
Others: Japan, Serbia, Belgium, Romania, Greece, Portugal, China. India contributed significantly.

Total War Concept

WWI saw the emergence of "Total War," where a nation's entire resources and population are mobilized for the war effort.

Mass Conscription: Millions of men drafted into armies.
Economic Mobilization: Governments directed industrial production, controlled raw materials, rationed goods, raised war bonds.
Civilian Involvement: Civilians became targets and crucial contributors (factory work, women in workforce - "Munitionettes").
Propaganda & Censorship: Governments used propaganda to maintain morale and demonize enemy; suppressed dissent.
State Intervention: Greatly increased state control over economic and social life.

Impact & Consequences

Human Cost & Economic Devastation

Casualties: 9-10 million combatant deaths, 7-10 million civilian deaths, over 20 million wounded.
Spanish Flu (1918-1919): Exacerbated by wartime conditions, killed tens of millions globally.
Economic Ruin: European economies devastated, huge national debts, infrastructure destroyed.
Global Shift: Europe shifted from creditor to debtor, primarily to the US. Widespread inflation.

Collapse of Empires

Russian Empire (Romanovs): Overthrown by Revolution (1917).
German Empire (Hohenzollerns): Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated, Weimar Republic formed.
Austro-Hungarian Empire (Habsburgs): Dissolved into new nation-states (Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, parts of Yugoslavia, Poland, Romania).
Ottoman Empire (Sultans): Defeated and dismantled; Turkey emerged as republic; Middle Eastern territories became mandates.

Treaty of Versailles & Peace Settlements

Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919) with Germany

Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920): Dominated by the "Big Four" (Wilson-USA, Lloyd George-UK, Clemenceau-France, Orlando-Italy).

War Guilt Clause (Article 231): Germany forced to accept sole responsibility for the war, deeply resented.
Reparations: Germany required to pay vast sums (£6.6 billion) for war damages.
Territorial Losses: Alsace-Lorraine (to France), Eupen-Malmedy (to Belgium), North Schleswig (to Denmark), parts of Prussia (to Poland, Polish Corridor), Danzig (Free City), Saar (League administration). All German colonies confiscated as mandates.
Military Restrictions: German army limited to 100,000 men, navy severely restricted, air force banned, Rhineland demilitarized.

Other Peace Treaties

Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919) with Austria: Dissolved Austro-Hungarian Empire, forbade Anschluss (union) with Germany.
Treaty of Trianon (1920) with Hungary: Hungary lost significant territory.
Treaty of Neuilly (1919) with Bulgaria: Lost territory to Greece, Yugoslavia, Romania.
Treaty of Sèvres (1920) with Ottoman Empire: Harsh terms, partitioned the Empire. Largely superseded by Treaty of Lausanne (1923) after Turkish War of Independence.

Creation of New Nation-States in Eastern Europe

Based on the principle of national self-determination (though inconsistently applied), many new states emerged:

Poland
Czechoslovakia
Yugoslavia (Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes)
Finland

Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania (Baltic States)
Austria
Hungary
(Many contained significant ethnic minorities, leading to future tensions)

Map Sketch Idea: Europe in 1914 (Alliances) & Post-WWI (New Borders)

Formation of the League of Nations (1920)

Wilson's Fourteen Points (Jan 1918): President Wilson's vision for post-war order, emphasizing open diplomacy, self-determination, and a "general association of nations."

Objectives:

To promote international cooperation, peace, and security.
Through collective security, disarmament, and arbitration of disputes.

Weaknesses:

US Non-membership: US Senate refused to ratify Treaty of Versailles and join, severely undermining credibility.
Exclusion of Key Powers: Germany and Soviet Russia initially excluded.
Lack of Enforcement: No standing army; relied on moral suasion/economic sanctions, ineffective against aggressive powers.
National Interests: Member states often prioritized own interests over collective security.
Failed to prevent aggression in 1930s (Manchuria, Abyssinia, German rearmament).

Rise of United States as a World Power

Economic Shift: Emerged as world's leading economic power and creditor nation.
Industrial Might: US industry boomed during and after the war.
Political Influence: Despite initial isolationism, economic strength gave significant global influence. Wilson played key role in peace settlement.

Seeds of World War II

Treaty of Versailles: Harsh terms fueled resentment in Germany, enabling rise of Nazism.
Failure of League of Nations: Inability to prevent aggression.
Economic Instability: Great Depression destabilized democracies, facilitated rise of dictators.
Unresolved Tensions: New states had minority problems and border disputes.
Rise of Fascism & Militarism: In Italy, Germany, and Japan, driven by dissatisfaction and hardship.

Alliances in WWI

Alliance	Key Members Before/Early War	Later Additions (Major)
Central Powers	Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire	Bulgaria (1915)
Allied Powers	Great Britain, France, Russia (until 1917), Serbia, Belgium	Italy (1915), USA (1917), Japan, Romania, Greece

Conclusion & Significance

World War I was a watershed moment in modern history. It not only resulted in unprecedented destruction and loss of life but also fundamentally altered the global balance of power, dismantled centuries-old empires, and redrew the map of Europe. The war accelerated social changes, including the role of women, and led to new political ideologies taking root.

Its flawed peace settlement, particularly the Treaty of Versailles, and the failure of the League of Nations to maintain peace, directly contributed to the outbreak of World War II two decades later. The experience of WWI continues to inform international relations, debates on warfare ethics, and the pursuit of collective security mechanisms like the United Nations (which learned from the League's failures). Understanding WWI is crucial to understanding the trajectory of the 20th century and many contemporary global challenges.

Prelims-Ready Notes

Key Facts & Figures

War Dates: 1914-1918.
Immediate Cause: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (Sarajevo, June 28, 1914).
Key Underlying Causes (MANIA): Militarism (Anglo-German Naval Race), Alliances (Triple Alliance vs. Triple Entente), Nationalism (French Revanchism, Pan-Slavism, Pan-Germanism), Imperialism (Scramble for colonies, Moroccan Crises), Assassination.
Key Fronts: Western (trench warfare, stalemate), Eastern (Russian collapse).
New War Technologies: Machine guns, poison gas, tanks, airplanes, U-boats.
US Entry (1917): Sinking of Lusitania (1915), unrestricted submarine warfare, Zimmermann Telegram.
Russian Withdrawal (1918): Bolshevik Revolution (1917), Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918).
Total War: Complete societal and economic mobilization.
Key Peace Treaty: Treaty of Versailles (1919) with Germany - War Guilt Clause (Article 231), Reparations, Territorial losses, military restrictions.
Empires Collapsed: Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman.
New Nations in E. Europe: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Baltic States, etc.
League of Nations (1920): Wilson's 14 Points; aimed for peace, but weakened by US non-membership and lack of enforcement.
India's Role: Contributed approx. 1.3 million troops and resources as part of British Empire.

Summary Table: Key Treaties and Outcomes

Treaty	Defeated Nation	Year	Key Provisions/Outcomes
Brest-Litovsk	Russia	1918	Russia exits war; cedes large territories to Central Powers.
Versailles	Germany	1919	War Guilt Clause, reparations, territorial losses (Alsace-Lorraine), military restrictions.
Saint-Germain	Austria	1919	Dissolves Austro-Hungarian Empire, new states created, Austria forbidden union with Germany.
Neuilly	Bulgaria	1919	Territorial losses to Greece, Yugoslavia, Romania.
Trianon	Hungary	1920	Significant territorial losses; becomes landlocked.
Sèvres	Ottoman Empire	1920	Partitions Ottoman Empire, harsh terms. (Largely rejected by Turkish nationalists)
Lausanne	Turkey	1923	Replaced Sèvres; recognized modern Turkish borders after Turkish War of Independence.

Mains-Ready Analytical Notes

Major Debates & Discussions

Responsibility for the War: Orthodox (Germany solely responsible) vs. Revisionist (shared responsibility, complex interplay) vs. Fritz Fischer Thesis (Germany's deliberate expansionist aims). Current consensus: multi-causal.
Inevitability of the War: Unavoidable outcome of long-term trends, or a "tragedy of miscalculation" (Christopher Clark) in the July Crisis?
Nature of the Treaty of Versailles: Pros (Allied security, reparations) vs. Cons (too harsh, fueled resentment, economic disaster - Keynes). Widely accepted view is it contributed to WWII.
Success/Failure of League of Nations: Pioneering international cooperation, but structural weaknesses (US non-membership, lack of enforcement) rendered it ineffective, though a model for UN.

Historical/Long-term Trends, Continuity & Changes

Continuity: Imperialist ambitions, nationalist rivalries continued.
Changes:
- Shift in Global Power: Decline of Europe, rise of USA, Japan, Soviet Union.
- End of Empires: Major dynastic land empires in Europe collapsed.
- Rise of New Ideologies: Communism, Fascism, intensified democratic aspirations.
- Transformation of Warfare: Industrialized "total war" became norm.
- Impact on Colonialism: Weakened colonial powers, fueled anti-colonial movements (India).
- Social Changes: Greater role for women, psychological trauma ("Lost Generation").

Contemporary Relevance & Significance

Legacy of Borders: Modern borders in Europe and Middle East (e.g., Sykes-Picot) trace back to WWI settlements, remain sources of tension.
International Institutions: UN evolved from WWI/League lessons (collective security, conflict prevention).
Warnings from History: Alliances, arms races, aggressive nationalism serve as cautionary tales.
War Crimes & International Law: Early attempts laid groundwork for later developments.

Real-world/Data-backed Recent Examples (India/World)

Impact on India:

Economic: Heavy financial burden (£100 million contribution, war loans), increased taxes, price inflation.
Political: Indian leaders supported war effort hoping for concessions; disappointment fueled nationalist agitation (Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh). Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919) seen as inadequate.
Social: 1.3 million soldiers served overseas, broadening horizons, influencing nationalist thinking.

Modern Conflicts & Parallels:

Debates on intervention, collective security, great power roles in conflicts (e.g., Syria, Ukraine) often draw lessons from WWI.

Value-added Points:

Balfour Declaration (1917): British support for Jewish national home in Palestine, long-lasting consequences for Middle East.
Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916): Secret Anglo-French agreement to partition Ottoman Middle East, shaping modern borders.
UNESCO Memory of the World Register: Includes WWI archives, highlighting global human impact.

Current Affairs & Recent Developments

Centenary Commemorations (Ongoing Legacy): Discussions around repatriation of colonial soldiers' remains or re-evaluation of their contributions (e.g., from Africa and India) continue in academic and public discourse.
Geopolitical Echoes: Ongoing conflicts (e.g., war in Ukraine) sometimes draw comparisons to pre-WWI great power rivalries, alliance politics, and miscalculations.
Re-evaluation of Historical Narratives: New research brings fresh perspectives, e.g., role of non-European actors, environmental impact of WWI.
International Cooperation & Its Fragility: Debates on UN Security Council effectiveness implicitly connect to League of Nations failures, highlighting persistent challenges of collective security.
National War Memorial, New Delhi: Digital interfaces allow access to records of soldiers, including those from WWI, fostering remembrance.

UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims MCQs

Which one of the following was a very significant aspect of the Champaran Satyagraha? (UPSC CSE 2018)

(a) Active all-India participation of lawyers, students and women in the National Movement

(b) Active involvement of Dalit and Tribal communities of India in the National Movement

(c) Joining of peasant unrest to India’s National Movement

(d) Drastic decrease in the cultivation of plantation crops and commercial crops

Answer: (c)

Hint/Explanation: Champaran (1917) occurred during WWI. War-exacerbated economic hardships led to peasant distress, and Champaran integrated these issues into the nationalist struggle. (Indirect WWI influence)
The Ghadar (Ghadar) was a: (UPSC CSE 2014)

(a) revolutionary association of Indians with headquarters at San Francisco.

(b) nationalist organization operating from Singapore.

(c) militant organization with headquarters at Berlin.

(d) communist movement for India’s freedom with headquarters at Tashkent.

Answer: (a)

Hint/Explanation: The Ghadar Party was active during WWI, seeking to exploit Britain's preoccupation for rebellion in India.

Note: Direct Prelims questions on WWI global events are less common than its impact on India or events in India during that period. World History is primarily a Mains topic.

Mains Questions

"The Treaty of Versailles contained the seeds of the Second World War." Critically examine the statement. (UPSC CSE 2014, similar questions in other years)

Direction/Value Points:
- Agree: Explain how War Guilt Clause, reparations, territorial losses, military restrictions on Germany fueled resentment, hardship, and rise of Nazism.
- Disagree/Nuance: Acknowledge other factors: failure of League, Great Depression, rise of fascism/militarism (Italy/Japan), appeasement, Soviet expansionism.
- Conclusion: Versailles was significant, but not sole cause.
In what ways did the naval blockades starting in 1914 and the American entry in 1917 affect the course of the World War I? (UPSC CSE 2012, adapted)

Direction/Value Points:
- Naval Blockades (by Britain on Germany): Crippled German economy, caused food shortages, civilian unrest, limited war material imports. Key element of total war.
- American Entry (1917): Tipped balance decisively for Allies. Provided fresh troops, vast industrial resources, financial aid. Boosted Allied morale, demoralized Central Powers. Countered German advantage from Russia's exit.

Trend Analysis (UPSC PYQs)

Prelims Trends:

Direct questions on WWI global events are rare.
Focus is more on events in India during the WWI period (e.g., Ghadar, Home Rule, Champaran) or WWI's impact on India's freedom struggle.
Questions test understanding of broader context rather than minute European battle details.

Mains Trends (World History - GS Paper 1):

WWI is a frequently tested topic.
Questions are analytical, requiring critical examination.
Common Themes: Causes (less frequent recently), Consequences (especially Treaty of Versailles & WWII link - recurring favorite), Impact on global power balance, role of specific events (US entry, Russian withdrawal), nature of warfare (total war).
UPSC expects critical analysis, connecting causes and effects, and understanding long-term implications, beyond mere narration.

Original MCQs for Prelims

Question 1

Which of the following was NOT a significant consequence of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)?

(a) Russia's withdrawal from World War I.

(b) Cession of large territories by Russia to the Central Powers.

(c) Strengthening of the Allied war effort on the Western Front.

(d) Recognition of the independence of Ukraine by the Central Powers (as per the treaty terms).

Answer: (c)

Explanation: The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk allowed Germany to transfer a large number of troops from the Eastern Front to the Western Front, thereby strengthening the German (Central Powers) war effort there, not the Allied one. The other options are correct consequences.

Question 2

Consider the following statements regarding the US entry into World War I:

The Zimmermann Telegram proposed an alliance between Germany and Mexico against the United States.
The sinking of the passenger liner Lusitania in 1917 was the immediate trigger for the US declaration of war.
President Woodrow Wilson's "Fourteen Points" were outlined before the US officially entered the war.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 1 and 2 only

(c) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a)

Explanation:
Statement 1 is correct. The Zimmermann Telegram (January 1917) did propose such an alliance.
Statement 2 is incorrect. The Lusitania was sunk in 1915. While it fueled anti-German sentiment, the immediate triggers for US entry in April 1917 were Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram.
Statement 3 is incorrect. Wilson's Fourteen Points were presented in January 1918, after the US had entered the war (April 1917).

Original Descriptive Questions for Mains

Question 1

"World War I was not just a product of great power rivalries but also a consequence of systemic failures in diplomacy and the unforeseen dynamics of industrialised warfare." Elaborate.

Key Points/Structure for Answering:

Introduction: Briefly state WWI's complexity beyond simple rivalries.
Great Power Rivalries: Discuss M.A.N.I.A. as traditional explanations.
Systemic Failures in Diplomacy: Rigidity of alliances, secret diplomacy, failure of crisis management (July Crisis), influence of military planners (Schlieffen Plan).
Unforeseen Dynamics of Industrialised Warfare: Expectation of short war vs. prolonged trench warfare reality, defensive tech superiority, "Total War" implications, escalation due to new weapons.
Interlinkages: How these factors interacted.
Conclusion: Reiterate WWI resulted from confluence of actions, miscalculations, and uncontrollable nature of modern conflict.

Question 2

Critically analyze the assertion that the collapse of the Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and Russian empires due to World War I fundamentally reshaped the geopolitical landscape of Europe and the Middle East, with consequences that resonate even today.

Key Points/Structure for Answering:

Introduction: Acknowledge transformative impact.
Collapse of Austro-Hungarian Empire: Creation of new states (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Austria, Hungary), principle of self-determination vs. ethnic minorities.
Collapse of Russian Empire: Emergence of Soviet Union, temporary independence of Baltic states/Finland/Poland, long-term geopolitical rivalry.
Collapse of Ottoman Empire: Modern Turkey, creation of mandates (Sykes-Picot, Balfour Declaration), artificial borders, Arab nationalism, seeds of Arab-Israeli conflict.
Resonating Consequences Today: Ongoing disputes/tensions in Balkans/Eastern Europe, instability in Middle East traceable to post-WWI settlements, legacy of great power intervention.
Critical Analysis: Were all consequences negative? Other factors shaping regions post-WWI (USA, WWII, Cold War)? WWI was catalyst, but subsequent events also crucial.
Conclusion: Imperial collapses were pivotal, unleashing forces and creating structures deeply embedded in contemporary geopolitics.