Indian Polity

1.1.2.1: Limited Government and Rule of Law 1.1.2.2: Checks and Balances 1.1.2.3: Constitutional Morality

1.2.2.1: Regulating Act of 1773 – First step towards Centralization and Parliamentary Control

1.2.2.1.1: Context and Objectives (Corruption, Mismanagement) 1.2.2.1.2: Key Provisions (Governor-General of Bengal, Supreme Court, Court of Directors accountability) 1.2.2.1.3: Significance and Defects

1.2.2.2: Amending Act of 1781 (Act of Settlement) – Rectifying defects of 1773 Act

1.2.2.3: Pitt’s India Act of 1784 – Dual Control System

1.2.2.3.1: Board of Control vs. Court of Directors 1.2.2.3.2: Strengthening Parliamentary Control 1.2.2.3.3: Significance

1.2.2.4: Act of 1786 – Strengthening Governor-General's powers 1.2.2.5: Charter Act of 1793 – Consolidation and Extension of Powers 1.2.2.6: Charter Act of 1813 – End of Trade Monopoly (except tea & China trade), Assertion of Crown's Sovereignty, Education Fund

1.2.2.7: Charter Act of 1833 – Final Step towards Centralization in British India

1.2.2.7.1: Governor-General of India (Lord William Bentinck) 1.2.2.7.2: Centralization of Legislative Powers 1.2.2.7.3: End of EIC as commercial body 1.2.2.7.4: Attempt to introduce open competition for civil services

1.2.2.8: Charter Act of 1853 – Separation of Legislative and Executive Functions of Governor-General's Council

1.2.2.8.1: Indian (Central) Legislative Council (Mini-Parliament) 1.2.2.8.2: Introduction of Open Competition for Civil Services (Macaulay Committee) 1.2.2.8.3: Extension of Company rule indefinitely

1.2.3.1: Government of India Act of 1858 – Act for Good Government of India

1.2.3.1.1: Context (Revolt of 1857) 1.2.3.1.2: Abolition of EIC, Transfer of power to Crown 1.2.3.1.3: Secretary of State for India & Council of India 1.2.3.1.4: Viceroy of India 1.2.3.1.5: Significance (End of Dual Control, Centralization continued)

1.2.3.2: Indian Councils Act of 1861 – Beginning of Representative Institutions

1.2.3.2.1: Association of Indians in legislative process (non-official members) 1.2.3.2.2: Restoration of legislative powers to Bombay and Madras 1.2.3.2.3: Portfolio System (Lord Canning) 1.2.3.2.4: Ordinance-making power for Viceroy 1.2.3.2.5: Significance and Limitations

1.2.3.3: Indian Councils Act of 1892 – Increased Size and Functions of Legislative Councils

1.2.3.3.1: Increase in non-official members (Central & Provincial) 1.2.3.3.2: Limited and indirect provision for election 1.2.3.3.3: Power to discuss budget and ask questions 1.2.3.3.4: Significance and Limitations

1.2.3.4: Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms) – Introduction of Separate Electorates

1.2.3.4.1: Context (Growth of Nationalism, Swadeshi Movement, Muslim League formation) 1.2.3.4.2: Increase in size of Legislative Councils 1.2.3.4.3: Enlarged deliberative functions (supplementary questions, resolutions on budget) 1.2.3.4.4: Association of Indians with Executive Councils (S.P. Sinha) 1.2.3.4.5: Introduction of Separate Electorates for Muslims (Communal Representation) 1.2.3.4.6: Significance and Criticism (Legalizing Communalism)

1.2.3.5: Government of India Act of 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) – Towards Responsible Government

1.2.3.5.1: Context (WWI, Home Rule Movement, August Declaration 1917) 1.2.3.5.2: Preamble – Gradual development of self-governing institutions 1.2.3.5.3: Dyarchy in Provinces (Transferred and Reserved Subjects) 1.2.3.5.4: Bicameralism and Direct Elections at the Centre 1.2.3.5.5: Extension of Communal Representation (Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans) 1.2.3.5.6: Establishment of Public Service Commission (1926) 1.2.3.5.7: Separation of provincial budgets from Central budget 1.2.3.5.8: Provision for Statutory Commission after 10 years 1.2.3.5.9: Significance and Limitations

1.2.3.6: Developments towards GoI Act 1935

1.2.3.6.1: Simon Commission (1927) – Report and Recommendations 1.2.3.6.2: Nehru Report (1928) – Indian response, demand for Dominion Status, Fundamental Rights 1.2.3.6.3: Jinnah's Fourteen Points 1.2.3.6.4: Round Table Conferences (I, II, III) 1.2.3.6.5: Communal Award (1932) and Poona Pact (1932) 1.2.3.6.6: White Paper on Constitutional Reforms

1.2.3.7: Government of India Act of 1935 – Blueprint for the Constitution

1.2.3.7.1: All-India Federation (Princely States did not join) 1.2.3.7.2: Division of Powers (Federal, Provincial, Concurrent Lists) 1.2.3.7.3: Provincial Autonomy (Abolition of Dyarchy in provinces) 1.2.3.7.4: Dyarchy at the Centre (Not implemented) 1.2.3.7.5: Bicameralism in Provinces (6 out of 11) 1.2.3.7.6: Extension of Communal Representation and Franchise 1.2.3.7.7: Establishment of Reserve Bank of India, Federal Court, Federal Public Service Commission, Provincial PSCs 1.2.3.7.8: Residuary Powers to Viceroy 1.2.3.7.9: Significance and Limitations (No Preamble, retention of British supremacy)

1.2.3.8: Indian Independence Act of 1947 – Partition and Independence

1.2.3.8.1: Context (WWII, Quit India Movement, Cabinet Mission, Mountbatten Plan) 1.2.3.8.2: Declaration of India as Independent and Sovereign State 1.2.3.8.3: Partition of India and creation of Pakistan 1.2.3.8.4: Abolition of office of Viceroy and Secretary of State for India 1.2.3.8.5: Empowerment of Constituent Assemblies of both dominions 1.2.3.8.6: Lapse of British paramountcy over Princely States 1.2.3.8.7: Interim Government (1946) – Composition and Functioning

1.3.1.1: Early Calls (M.N. Roy, INC) 1.3.1.2: August Offer (1940) 1.3.1.3: Cripps Mission (1942) 1.3.1.4: Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) – Basis for Constituent Assembly

1.3.2.1: Election (Indirect) and Membership (Representation from Provinces and Princely States) 1.3.2.2: First Meeting, Temporary President, Permanent President 1.3.2.3: Impact of Partition on the Assembly 1.3.2.4: Functions as Dominion Legislature alongside constitution-making

1.3.3.1: Content and Philosophy 1.3.3.2: Significance (Guiding principles, Preamble's foundation)

1.3.4.1: Major Committees (...) – Chairpersons and Key Mandates 1.3.4.2: Minor Committees

1.3.5.1: Composition (Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as Chairman, other members) 1.3.5.2: Process of Drafting (First Draft, Public Discussion, Second Draft)

1.3.6.1: Readings of the Draft Constitution 1.3.6.2: Adoption (Nov 26, 1949) and Date of Commencement (Jan 26, 1950) 1.3.6.3: Provisions enforced on Nov 26, 1949

1.3.8.1: Not a Representative Body (Indirect election, limited franchise) 1.3.8.2: Not a Sovereign Body (Created by British proposal) 1.3.8.3: Time Consuming 1.3.8.4: Dominated by Congress and Lawyers 1.3.8.5: Hindu Domination (as alleged)

1.4.1.1: Government of India Act, 1935 (...) 1.4.1.2: British Constitution (...) 1.4.1.3: US Constitution (...) 1.4.1.4: Irish Constitution (...) 1.4.1.5: Canadian Constitution (...) 1.4.1.6: Australian Constitution (...) 1.4.1.7: Weimar Constitution of Germany (...) 1.4.1.8: Soviet Constitution (USSR, now Russia) (...) 1.4.1.9: French Constitution (...) 1.4.1.10: South African Constitution (...) 1.4.1.11: Japanese Constitution (...) 1.4.1.12: Indigenous Sources and Innovations

1.4.2.1: Lengthiest Written Constitution – Reasons 1.4.2.2: Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility 1.4.2.3: Federal System with Unitary Bias 1.4.2.4: Parliamentary Form of Government 1.4.2.5: Synthesis of Parliamentary Sovereignty and Judicial Supremacy 1.4.2.6: Integrated and Independent Judiciary 1.4.2.7: Fundamental Rights (Part III) 1.4.2.8: Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV) 1.4.2.9: Fundamental Duties (Part IV-A) 1.4.2.10: A Secular State – Concept and Indian model 1.4.2.11: Universal Adult Franchise 1.4.2.12: Single Citizenship 1.4.2.13: Independent Bodies (EC, CAG, UPSC, SPSC) 1.4.2.14: Emergency Provisions 1.4.2.15: Three-tier Government (73rd & 74th Amendments) 1.4.2.16: Co-operative Societies (97th Amendment)

1.5.2.1: Source of Authority (We, the People of India) 1.5.2.2: Nature of Indian State (...) 1.5.2.3: Objectives of the Constitution (...) 1.5.2.4: Date of Adoption

1.5.3.1: Sovereign – Meaning, Implications, Contemporary Challenges 1.5.3.2: Socialist – Indian brand of socialism (...) 1.5.3.3: Secular – Indian concept of secularism (...) 1.5.3.4: Democratic – Types (Direct/Indirect), Manifestations (...) 1.5.3.5: Republic – Meaning, Implications 1.5.3.6: Justice (Social, Economic, Political) – FRs & DPSPs as instruments 1.5.3.7: Liberty (of thought, expression, belief, faith, worship) – Scope and Limitations 1.5.3.8: Equality (of status and opportunity) – Dimensions 1.5.3.9: Fraternity (...) – Role of Single Citizenship, FDs

1.5.4.1: Embodies basic philosophy and fundamental values 1.5.4.2: A guide for interpretation of the Constitution 1.5.4.3: Reflects dreams and aspirations of founding fathers

1.5.5.1: Berubari Union Case (1960) 1.5.5.2: Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973) – Preamble is part of Constitution 1.5.5.3: LIC of India Case (1995)

1.5.6.1: Kesavananda Bharati Case – Preamble can be amended, subject to Basic Structure 1.5.6.2: 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 (Addition of Socialist, Secular, Integrity)

1.6.1.1: "India, that is Bharat" – Significance 1.6.1.2: "Union of States" vs "Federation of States" – Dr. Ambedkar's explanation 1.6.1.3: Territory of India (States, UTs, Acquired Territories)

1.6.3.1: Power of Parliament – Process (...) 1.6.3.2: "Indestructible Union of destructible states"

1.6.5.1: Berubari Union Case (1960) – Constitutional Amendment required for cession 1.6.5.2: Exchange of Enclaves with Bangladesh (100th Amendment Act, 2015) (...)

1.6.6.1: Integration of Princely States – Role of Sardar Patel and V.P. Menon 1.6.6.2: Part A, B, C, D States (Original Constitution) 1.6.6.3: Dhar Commission (1948) and JVP Committee (1949) – Rejection of linguistic reorganization 1.6.6.4: Demand for linguistic states – Andhra Movement, Potti Sriramulu 1.6.6.5: Fazl Ali Commission (States Reorganisation Commission, 1953) – Recommendations 1.6.6.6: States Reorganisation Act, 1956 – Creation of 14 states and 6 UTs 1.6.6.7: Subsequent creation of new States and UTs (...) 1.6.6.8: Reorganisation of Jammu & Kashmir (2019) – Implications 1.6.6.9: Merger of UTs (Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu, 2020)

1.7.2.1: Article 5: Citizenship by Domicile 1.7.2.2: Article 6: Citizenship of persons migrated from Pakistan 1.7.2.3: Article 7: Citizenship of migrants to Pakistan who later returned 1.7.2.4: Article 8: Citizenship of persons of Indian origin residing abroad

1.7.6.1: Acquisition of Citizenship

1.7.6.1.1: By Birth (Jus Soli) – Amendments and current provisions 1.7.6.1.2: By Descent (Jus Sanguinis) – Amendments and current provisions 1.7.6.1.3: By Registration 1.7.6.1.4: By Naturalisation 1.7.6.1.5: By Incorporation of Territory

1.7.6.2: Loss of Citizenship

1.7.6.2.1: By Renunciation 1.7.6.2.2: By Termination 1.7.6.2.3: By Deprivation

1.7.8.1: Evolution (PIO, OCI merger) 1.7.8.2: Eligibility, Rights, and Restrictions 1.7.8.3: Comparison with Non-Resident Indian (NRI) and Person of Indian Origin (PIO)

1.7.9.1: Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), 2019 (...) 1.7.9.2: National Register of Citizens (NRC) (...) 1.7.9.3: Issues of statelessness and refugees in India

2.1.1.1: Inspiration and Evolution (Global and Indian context) 2.1.1.2: Why "Fundamental"? Justiciable and Guaranteed nature 2.1.1.3: Purpose: Promoting political democracy, preventing authoritarianism 2.1.1.4: Balance between Individual Liberty and Social Control (Reasonable Restrictions)

2.1.2.1: Some available only to citizens, others to all persons 2.1.2.2: Not absolute but qualified 2.1.2.3: Most are negative obligations on State, some positive 2.1.2.4: Amendable by Parliament (subject to Basic Structure) 2.1.2.5: Suspendable during National Emergency (except Art 20, 21) 2.1.2.6: Scope of operation limited by Art 31A, 31B, 31C, 33, 34

2.1.3.1: Government and Parliament of India 2.1.3.2: Government and Legislature of States 2.1.3.3: All Local Authorities (...) 2.1.3.4: Other Authorities – Judicial Interpretation (...) 2.1.3.5: Significance of wide definition of 'State'

2.1.4.1: Power of Judicial Review – Explicit and Implicit Basis 2.1.4.2: Definition of 'Law' and 'Laws in force' (...) 2.1.4.3: Doctrine of Severability, Doctrine of Eclipse, Doctrine of Waiver 2.1.4.4: Article 13(4) and its relation to Art 368 (...)

2.1.5.1: Article 14: Equality before Law and Equal Protection of Laws

2.1.5.1.1: Equality before Law (British origin, negative concept) 2.1.5.1.2: Equal Protection of Laws (American origin, positive concept) 2.1.5.1.3: Rule of Law (Dicey) – Indian Context 2.1.5.1.4: Reasonable Classification – Test of Intelligible Differentia and Rational Nexus 2.1.5.1.5: New concept of Equality – Arbitrariness as antithesis to equality (E.P. Royappa) 2.1.5.1.6: Exceptions to Equality (President, Governor, Foreign Diplomats etc.)

2.1.5.2: Article 15: Prohibition of Discrimination on grounds of Religion, Race, Caste, Sex, or Place of Birth

2.1.5.2.1: Article 15(1) & (2) – Prohibition (...) 2.1.5.2.2: Article 15(3) – Special provisions for Women and Children (Protective Discrimination) 2.1.5.2.3: Article 15(4) – Special provisions for SEBCs, SCs, STs 2.1.5.2.4: Article 15(5) – Reservation in educational institutions (...) 2.1.5.2.5: Article 15(6) – Special provisions for EWS (103rd Amendment, 2019) 2.1.5.2.6: Concept of 'Creamy Layer'

2.1.5.3: Article 16: Equality of Opportunity in matters of Public Employment

2.1.5.3.1: Article 16(1) & (2) – General rule (...) 2.1.5.3.2: Article 16(3) – Parliament can prescribe residence (...) 2.1.5.3.3: Article 16(4) – Reservation for Backward Classes (...) 2.1.5.3.4: Article 16(4A) – Reservation in promotions for SCs/STs (...) 2.1.5.3.5: Article 16(4B) – Carry forward rule (...) 2.1.5.3.6: Article 16(5) – Exemption for religious/denominational institutions 2.1.5.3.7: Article 16(6) – Reservation for EWS (...) 2.1.5.3.8: Mandal Commission and Indra Sawhney Case (1992) (...) 2.1.5.3.9: Debates around reservation policy (...)

2.1.5.4: Article 17: Abolition of Untouchability and prohibition of its practice

2.1.5.4.1: Meaning of 'Untouchability' (...) 2.1.5.4.2: Offence punishable by law (...) 2.1.5.4.3: Available against State and private individuals

2.1.5.5: Article 18: Abolition of Titles

2.1.5.5.1: Prohibition of titles (except military and academic distinctions) by State 2.1.5.5.2: Prohibition on citizens accepting foreign titles 2.1.5.5.3: National Awards (Bharat Ratna, Padma Awards) – Balaji Raghavan case (1996)

2.1.6.1: Article 19: Protection of Six Rights (available only to citizens, suspended only during external emergency)

2.1.6.1.1: Art 19(1)(a): Freedom of Speech and Expression – Scope & Reasonable restrictions 2.1.6.1.2: Art 19(1)(b): Freedom of Assembly – Reasonable restrictions 2.1.6.1.3: Art 19(1)(c): Freedom to form Associations or Unions or Co-operative Societies – Reasonable restrictions 2.1.6.1.4: Art 19(1)(d): Freedom of Movement – Reasonable restrictions 2.1.6.1.5: Art 19(1)(e): Freedom to Reside and Settle – Reasonable restrictions 2.1.6.1.6: Art 19(1)(g): Freedom to Practice any Profession, Occupation, Trade or Business – Reasonable restrictions

2.1.6.2: Article 20: Protection in Respect of Conviction for Offences (Available to citizens and non-citizens, cannot be suspended)

2.1.6.2.1: No Ex-post-facto Law (Art 20(1)) 2.1.6.2.2: No Double Jeopardy (Art 20(2)) 2.1.6.2.3: No Self-incrimination (Art 20(3)) – Scope

2.1.6.3: Article 21: Protection of Life and Personal Liberty

2.1.6.3.1: "Procedure established by law" 2.1.6.3.2: Evolution of Interpretation – A.K. Gopalan vs. Maneka Gandhi case 2.1.6.3.3: Expanding Horizons of Article 21 – Implied Rights 2.1.6.3.4: Current debates – Euthanasia

2.1.6.4: Article 21A: Right to Education (Added by 86th Amendment, 2002)

2.1.6.4.1: State to provide free and compulsory education (6-14 years) 2.1.6.4.2: Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009

2.1.6.5: Article 22: Protection Against Arrest and Detention

2.1.6.5.1: Rights of person arrested under ordinary law (Art 22(1) & (2))

2.1.6.5.2: Preventive Detention (Art 22(4) to (7))

2.1.6.5.2.1: Safeguards – Detention not to exceed 3 months unless Advisory Board reports sufficient cause 2.1.6.5.2.2: Right to be informed of grounds of detention 2.1.6.5.2.3: Right to make representation against detention order 2.1.6.5.2.4: Parliament's power to prescribe circumstances, classes of cases, maximum period 2.1.6.5.2.5: Preventive Detention Laws in India – Debates on misuse

2.1.7.1: Article 23: Prohibition of Traffic in Human Beings and Forced Labour

2.1.7.1.1: 'Traffic in human beings', 'Begar', forced labour prohibited 2.1.7.1.2: Available against State and private individuals 2.1.7.1.3: Exception: Compulsory service for public purposes 2.1.7.1.4: Legislative Measures

2.1.7.2: Article 24: Prohibition of Employment of Children in Factories, etc.

2.1.7.2.1: Prohibition of employment of children below 14 years (...) 2.1.7.2.2: Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act and amendments

2.1.8.1: Article 25: Freedom of Conscience and Free Profession, Practice and Propagation of Religion

2.1.8.1.1: Available to all persons 2.1.8.1.2: Includes freedom of conscience, right to profess, practice, and propagate 2.1.8.1.3: 'Propagation' does not include right to convert (...) 2.1.8.1.4: Subject to public order, morality, health, and other FRs 2.1.8.1.5: State's power to regulate secular activities (...) 2.1.8.1.6: Debates: Essential Religious Practices doctrine (...)

2.1.8.2: Article 26: Freedom to Manage Religious Affairs

2.1.8.2.1: Right of every religious denomination to manage affairs, own property 2.1.8.2.2: Subject to public order, morality, and health 2.1.8.2.3: Difference between Art 25 (individual) and Art 26 (collective)

2.1.8.3: Article 27: Freedom from Taxation for Promotion of a Religion

2.1.8.3.1: No person compelled to pay taxes for promotion of any particular religion 2.1.8.3.2: State cannot spend public money (tax) for promotion of particular religion 2.1.8.3.3: Distinction between 'tax' and 'fee'

2.1.8.4: Article 28: Freedom from Attending Religious Instruction

2.1.8.4.1: No religious instruction in institutions wholly maintained by State funds (Art 28(1)) 2.1.8.4.2: Art 28(1) not applicable to institutions administered by State but established under endowment/trust (Art 28(2)) 2.1.8.4.3: No person in State-recognised/aided institution required to attend religious instruction without consent (Art 28(3))

2.1.9.1: Article 29: Protection of Interests of Minorities

2.1.9.1.1: Art 29(1): Right to conserve distinct language, script or culture 2.1.9.1.2: Art 29(2): No denial of admission (...)

2.1.9.2: Article 30: Right of Minorities to Establish and Administer Educational Institutions

2.1.9.2.1: Art 30(1): Right of religious/linguistic minorities (...) 2.1.9.2.2: Art 30(1A): Compensation for compulsory acquisition (...) 2.1.9.2.3: Art 30(2): No discrimination in granting aid (...) 2.1.9.2.4: Meaning of 'Minority' – TMA Pai Foundation case 2.1.9.2.5: Extent of regulatory power of State over minority institutions (...)

2.1.10.1: Original Provisions (Art 31, Art 19(1)(f)) 2.1.10.2: Conflicts with Land Reforms and DPSPs 2.1.10.3: Amendments 2.1.10.4: Present Status: Article 300A (Legal/Constitutional Right)

2.1.11.1: Article 31A: Saving of laws providing for acquisition of estates, etc. 2.1.11.2: Article 31B: Validation of certain Acts and Regulations in Ninth Schedule (I.R. Coelho case) 2.1.11.3: Article 31C: Saving of laws giving effect to certain Directive Principles

2.1.12.1: Right to move Supreme Court for enforcement of FRs

2.1.12.2: Power of SC to issue Writs:

2.1.12.2.1: Habeas Corpus 2.1.12.2.2: Mandamus 2.1.12.2.3: Prohibition 2.1.12.2.4: Certiorari 2.1.12.2.5: Quo-Warranto

2.1.12.3: Article 32 as a Fundamental Right itself 2.1.12.4: Scope of SC's writ jurisdiction vs. HC's (Art 226) 2.1.12.5: Public Interest Litigation (PIL) and Locus Standi 2.1.12.6: Suspension of Art 32 during National Emergency

2.1.18.1: Art 265: No tax except by authority of law 2.1.18.2: Art 300A: Right to property 2.1.18.3: Art 301: Freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse 2.1.18.4: Art 326: Right to vote

2.2.1.1: Inspiration (Irish Constitution, Instrument of Instructions GoI Act 1935) 2.2.1.2: Aim: Establish a 'welfare state' and achieve social and economic democracy. 2.2.1.3: Fundamental in the governance of the country (Art 37).

2.2.2.1: Positive obligations on State. 2.2.2.2: Non-justiciable in nature (Art 37) – Cannot be enforced by courts. 2.2.2.3: Comprehensive socio-economic program. 2.2.2.4: Guide for all organs of State.

2.2.3.1: Socialistic Principles (...) 2.2.3.2: Gandhian Principles (...) 2.2.3.3: Liberal-Intellectual Principles (...)

2.2.4.1: 42nd Amendment, 1976 (Art 39A, 43A, 48A, Art 39(f)) 2.2.4.2: 44th Amendment, 1978 (Art 38(2)) 2.2.4.3: 86th Amendment, 2002 (Art 45 – Subject matter changed) 2.2.4.4: 97th Amendment, 2011 (Art 43B – Co-operative societies)

2.2.7.1: Guide for State action and policy making. 2.2.7.2: Amplify the Preamble. 2.2.7.3: Enable stability and continuity in policies. 2.2.7.4: Supplement to Fundamental Rights. 2.2.7.5: Yardstick for performance of government. 2.2.7.6: Aid courts in interpretation.

2.2.8.1: Champakam Dorairajan Case (1951) 2.2.8.2: Golaknath Case (1967) 2.2.8.3: 25th Amendment (Art 31C) 2.2.8.4: Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973) 2.2.8.5: Minerva Mills Case (1980) 2.2.8.6: Current Position

2.2.9.1: Land Reforms 2.2.9.2: Labour Welfare 2.2.9.3: Panchayati Raj 2.2.9.4: Education 2.2.9.5: Environmental Protection 2.2.9.6: Legal Aid 2.2.9.7: Social Justice 2.2.9.8: Rural Development 2.2.9.9: Uniform Civil Code (Art 44) – Debates

2.3.1.1: Not in original Constitution. 2.3.1.2: Inspiration from other constitutions (e.g., USSR, Japan). 2.3.1.3: Swaran Singh Committee Recommendations (1976). 2.3.1.4: Added by 42nd Amendment Act, 1976.

2.3.2.1: (a) Abide by Constitution... 2.3.2.2: (b) Cherish and follow noble ideals... 2.3.2.3: (c) Uphold and protect sovereignty, unity, integrity... 2.3.2.4: (d) Defend the country and render national service... 2.3.2.5: (e) Promote harmony and spirit of common brotherhood... 2.3.2.6: (f) Value and preserve rich heritage... 2.3.2.7: (g) Protect and improve natural environment... 2.3.2.8: (h) Develop scientific temper, humanism... 2.3.2.9: (i) Safeguard public property and abjure violence. 2.3.2.10: (j) Strive towards excellence... 2.3.2.11: (k) Parent/guardian to provide education opportunities...

2.3.3.1: Moral and Civic duties. 2.3.3.2: Confined to citizens only. 2.3.3.3: Non-justiciable – No direct legal enforcement by courts. 2.3.3.4: Some duties reflect Indian traditions, mythology, religion, practices.

2.3.5.1: Reminder to citizens of their duties. 2.3.5.2: Warning against anti-social and anti-national activities. 2.3.5.3: Source of inspiration and promote discipline and commitment. 2.3.5.4: Help courts in determining constitutionality of laws. 2.3.5.5: Enforceable by law – Parliament can provide for penalties.

3.1.1.1: Adapting to changing needs and circumstances. 3.1.1.2: Balance between rigidity and flexibility. 3.1.1.3: Avoiding extra-constitutional methods for change.

3.1.2.1: Initiation of Amendment Bill

3.1.2.1.1: Introduction in either House (not State Legislatures). 3.1.2.1.2: Introduced by Minister or Private Member. 3.1.2.1.3: No prior permission of President required.

3.1.2.2: Passage of the Bill

3.1.2.2.1: Passed by Special Majority in each House. 3.1.2.2.2: Separate passage in each House (No joint sitting).

3.1.2.3: Ratification by States (for certain provisions)

3.1.2.3.1: Required for 'federal provisions'. 3.1.2.3.2: Ratified by half of States by Simple Majority. 3.1.2.3.3: No time limit for State ratification.

3.1.2.3.4: Federal provisions requiring ratification

3.1.2.3.4.1: Election of President (Art 54, 55). 3.1.2.3.4.2: Executive power of Union/States (Art 73, 162). 3.1.2.3.4.3: Supreme Court and High Courts. 3.1.2.3.4.4: Distribution of legislative powers. 3.1.2.3.4.5: Representation of States in Parliament. 3.1.2.3.4.6: Article 368 itself.

3.1.2.4: Assent of the President

3.1.2.4.1: Bill presented to President for assent. 3.1.2.4.2: President MUST give assent (24th Amendment).

3.1.2.5: Bill becomes an Act, Constitution amended.

3.1.3.1: Amendment by Simple Majority of Parliament (Outside Art 368)

3.1.3.1.1: Not deemed 'amendments' under Art 368. 3.1.3.1.2: Examples (Art 2, 3, 169, Citizenship, etc.).

3.1.3.2: Amendment by Special Majority of Parliament (Art 368) 3.1.3.3: Amendment by Special Majority + State Ratification (Art 368)

3.1.4.1: Shankari Prasad Case (1951) 3.1.4.2: Sajjan Singh Case (1965) 3.1.4.3: Golaknath Case (1967) 3.1.4.4: Parliamentary Response: 24th Amendment Act (1971)

3.2.1.1: Background: Conflict between Parliament's amending power and FRs.

3.2.1.2: Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973) – Landmark judgment.

3.2.1.2.1: Upheld validity of 24th Amendment. 3.2.1.2.2: Propounded Doctrine of Basic Structure. 3.2.1.2.3: Overruled Golaknath Case.

3.2.3.1: Indira Nehru Gandhi Case (1975) 3.2.3.2: Minerva Mills Case (1980) 3.2.3.3: Waman Rao Case (1981) 3.2.3.4: S.R. Bommai Case (1994) 3.2.3.5: I.R. Coelho Case (2007) (Ninth Schedule Case) 3.2.3.6: NJAC Case (2015)

4.1.1.1: Constitutional Position

4.1.1.2: Election of the President (Article 54, 55)

4.1.1.2.1: Electoral College 4.1.1.2.2: Manner of Election 4.1.1.2.3: Value of Vote of MLA and MP 4.1.1.2.4: Disputes regarding election (Art 71)

4.1.1.3: Qualifications for Election (Art 58) 4.1.1.4: Oath or Affirmation (Art 60) 4.1.1.5: Conditions of President's Office (Art 59) 4.1.1.6: Term of Office (Art 56); Re-election (Art 57)

4.1.1.7: Impeachment of President (Article 61)

4.1.1.7.1: Ground: 'Violation of the Constitution' 4.1.1.7.2: Quasi-judicial procedure 4.1.1.7.3: Requirements for Impeachment

4.1.1.8: Vacancy in President's Office (Art 62)

4.1.1.9: Powers and Functions of the President

4.1.1.9.1: Executive Powers 4.1.1.9.2: Legislative Powers 4.1.1.9.3: Financial Powers 4.1.1.9.4: Judicial Powers (Pardoning - Art 72) 4.1.1.9.5: Diplomatic Powers 4.1.1.9.6: Military Powers 4.1.1.9.7: Emergency Powers (Art 352, 356, 360)

4.1.1.10: Constitutional Position of the President: Titular/Nominal Head

4.1.1.10.1: Bound by aid and advice of CoM (Art 74(1)) 4.1.1.10.2: 42nd Amendment - Advice binding 4.1.1.10.3: 44th Amendment - Return advice once 4.1.1.10.4: Nature of advice not subject to inquiry (Art 74(2))

4.1.1.11: Discretionary Powers of the President (Situational Discretion)

4.1.1.11.1: Appointment of PM in hung assembly/PM death 4.1.1.11.2: Dismissal of CoM (lost confidence) 4.1.1.11.3: Dissolution of Lok Sabha (CoM lost majority) 4.1.1.11.4: Use of Suspensive Veto 4.1.1.11.5: Seeking information from PM (Art 78) 4.1.1.11.6: Referring advice back for reconsideration

4.1.1.12: Immunities of the President (Art 361)

4.1.2.1: Constitutional Position

4.1.2.2: Election (Article 66)

4.1.2.2.1: Electoral College (Elected & Nominated MPs) 4.1.2.2.2: Manner of Election

4.1.2.3: Qualifications for Election (Art 66(3)) 4.1.2.4: Oath or Affirmation (Art 69) 4.1.2.5: Conditions of Office (Art 66(2)) 4.1.2.6: Term of Office (Art 67); Re-election 4.1.2.7: Removal (Art 67(b)) 4.1.2.8: Vacancy in Office (Art 68)

4.1.2.9: Powers and Functions

4.1.2.9.1: Ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha (Art 64) 4.1.2.9.2: Acts as President (Art 65) 4.1.2.9.3: Discharges President's functions (absence/illness)

4.1.2.10: Emoluments 4.1.2.11: Comparison: Indian vs. American Vice-President

4.1.3.1: Constitutional Position: Real Executive Head 4.1.3.2: Appointment (Art 75(1)) 4.1.3.3: Oath, Term, Salary 4.1.3.4: Membership of Parliament

4.1.3.5: Powers and Functions of the Prime Minister

4.1.3.5.1: In Relation to Council of Ministers 4.1.3.5.2: In Relation to the President 4.1.3.5.3: In Relation to Parliament 4.1.3.5.4: Other Powers and Functions

4.1.3.6: Role Descriptions 4.1.3.7: Relationship with the President 4.1.3.8: Prime Ministers of India So Far

4.1.4.1: Article 74: CoM to aid and advise President

4.1.4.2: Article 75: Other Provisions as to Ministers

4.1.4.2.1: Appointment of PM and Ministers 4.1.4.2.2: Size of CoM (15% of Lok Sabha - 91st Amdt) 4.1.4.2.3: Disqualification on defection (91st Amdt) 4.1.4.2.4: Pleasure of President 4.1.4.2.5: Collective Responsibility to Lok Sabha (Art 75(3)) 4.1.4.2.6: Oath of office and secrecy 4.1.4.2.7: Minister must be MP within 6 months 4.1.4.2.8: Salaries and allowances

4.1.4.3: Composition of CoM:

4.1.4.3.1: Cabinet Ministers 4.1.4.3.2: Ministers of State (Independent Charge) 4.1.4.3.3: Ministers of State (Attached) 4.1.4.3.4: Deputy Ministers

4.1.4.4: Cabinet vs. Council of Ministers

4.1.4.4.1: CoM vs. Cabinet (Size) 4.1.4.4.2: Constitutional Recognition 4.1.4.4.3: Cabinet as Nucleus

4.1.4.5: Role of Cabinet 4.1.4.6: Kitchen Cabinet/Inner Cabinet

4.1.4.7: Principles of Working of CoM:

4.1.4.7.1: Collective Responsibility (Art 75(3)) 4.1.4.7.2: Individual Responsibility (Art 75(2)) 4.1.4.7.3: No Legal Responsibility

4.1.5.1: Nature: Extra-constitutional 4.1.5.2: Types: Standing and Ad hoc 4.1.5.3: Composition 4.1.5.4: Important Cabinet Committees (Political Affairs, Economic Affairs, ACC, CCS, etc.) 4.1.5.5: Functions 4.1.5.6: Groups of Ministers (GoMs)

4.1.6.1: Constitutional Position: Highest Law Officer 4.1.6.2: Appointment and Term

4.1.6.3: Duties and Functions

4.1.6.3.1: Advise GoI on legal matters 4.1.6.3.2: Perform other legal duties 4.1.6.3.3: Discharge functions by Constitution/law 4.1.6.3.4: Appear for GoI in SC and HCs 4.1.6.3.5: Represent GoI in Art 143 references

4.1.6.4: Rights and Limitations

4.1.6.4.1: Right of audience in all courts 4.1.6.4.2: Right to speak in Parliament (no vote) 4.1.6.4.3: Privileges and immunities of MP 4.1.6.4.4: Limitations (No advice against GoI, etc.)

4.1.6.5: Solicitor General and Additional Solicitors General

4.2.1.1: Composition (President, Rajya Sabha, Lok Sabha) 4.2.1.2: President as integral part 4.2.1.3: Rationale for Bicameralism

4.2.2.1: Maximum Strength (250) 4.2.2.2: Current Strength (245) 4.2.2.3: Representation of States 4.2.2.4: Representation of Union Territories 4.2.2.5: Nominated Members (12)

4.2.3.1: Maximum Strength (552, Anglo-Indian provision discontinued) 4.2.3.2: Current Strength (543) 4.2.3.3: Representation of States (Direct Election) 4.2.3.4: Representation of Union Territories (Direct Election)

4.2.3.5: Territorial Constituencies and Readjustment after Census (Article 82)

4.2.3.5.1: Delimitation Commission 4.2.3.5.2: Current delimitation and future implications

4.2.3.6: Reservation for SCs/STs (Art 330)

4.2.4.1: Duration of Rajya Sabha (Permanent body, 6-year term for members) 4.2.4.2: Duration of Lok Sabha (5 years, extendable during emergency)

4.2.5.1: Qualifications (Article 84)

4.2.5.1.1: Citizen of India 4.2.5.1.2: Oath or affirmation 4.2.5.1.3: Age (RS: 30, LS: 25) 4.2.5.1.4: Other qualifications by Parliament (RPA 1951)

4.2.5.2: Disqualifications (Article 102)

4.2.5.2.1: Constitutional Disqualifications 4.2.5.2.2: Statutory Disqualifications (RPA 1951) 4.2.5.2.3: Disqualification on Defection (Tenth Schedule) 4.2.5.2.4: Decision on Disqualification (Art 103)

4.2.5.3: Vacating of Seats (Article 101)

4.2.5.3.1: Double Membership 4.2.5.3.2: Disqualification 4.2.5.3.3: Resignation 4.2.5.3.4: Absence 4.2.5.3.5: Other cases

4.2.5.4: Oath or Affirmation by Members (Art 99) 4.2.5.5: Salaries and Allowances of Members (Art 106)

4.2.6.1: Speaker of Lok Sabha (Articles 93-97)

4.2.6.1.1: Election and Tenure 4.2.6.1.2: Removal 4.2.6.1.3: Role, Powers, and Functions 4.2.6.1.4: Independence and Impartiality

4.2.6.2: Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha 4.2.6.3: Panel of Chairpersons of Lok Sabha 4.2.6.4: Speaker Pro Tem 4.2.6.5: Chairman of Rajya Sabha 4.2.6.6: Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha 4.2.6.7: Panel of Vice-Chairpersons of Rajya Sabha 4.2.6.8: Secretariat of Parliament (Art 98)

4.2.7.1: Leader of the House 4.2.7.2: Leader of the Opposition (LoP) 4.2.7.3: Whip

4.2.8.1: Summoning 4.2.8.2: Sessions (Budget, Monsoon, Winter) 4.2.8.3: Adjournment 4.2.8.4: Adjournment Sine Die 4.2.8.5: Prorogation 4.2.8.6: Dissolution 4.2.8.7: Quorum (Art 100) 4.2.8.8: Lame-duck Session

4.2.9.1: Question Hour 4.2.9.2: Zero Hour

4.2.9.3: Motions (Substantive, Substitute, Subsidiary, Closure, Privilege, Calling Attention, Adjournment, No-Confidence, Censure, Motion of Thanks, No-Day-Yet-Named, Cut Motions)

Types of Motions

4.2.9.4: Resolutions 4.2.9.5: Point of Order 4.2.9.6: Discussions 4.2.9.7: Youth Parliament Programme

4.2.10.1: Ordinary Bills 4.2.10.2: Money Bills (Art 110) 4.2.10.3: Financial Bills 4.2.10.4: Joint Sitting (Art 108)

4.2.11.1: Annual Financial Statement (Art 112) 4.2.11.2: Presentation and Merger of Railway Budget 4.2.11.3: Stages in Enactment 4.2.11.4: Other Grants 4.2.11.5: Vote on Account (Art 116) 4.2.11.6: Funds of India 4.2.11.7: Charged Expenditure

4.2.12.1: Legislative Powers 4.2.12.2: Executive Powers 4.2.12.3: Financial Powers 4.2.12.4: Constituent Powers 4.2.12.5: Judicial Powers 4.2.12.6: Electoral Powers 4.2.12.7: Other Powers

4.2.13.1: Meaning and Significance 4.2.13.2: Collective Privileges 4.2.13.3: Individual Privileges 4.2.13.4: Sources of Privileges 4.2.13.5: Breach of Privilege and Contempt 4.2.13.6: Privileges vs. Fundamental Rights

4.2.14.1: Not Sovereign like British Parliament 4.2.14.2: Limitations on Indian Parliament 4.2.14.3: Indian Parliament as 'non-sovereign law-making body'

4.2.15.1: Unequal Status with Lok Sabha 4.2.15.2: Equal Status with Lok Sabha 4.2.15.3: Special Powers of Rajya Sabha (Art 249, 312) 4.2.15.4: Utility of Rajya Sabha 4.2.15.5: Criticisms and Debates on Relevance

4.2.16.1: Symptoms of Decline 4.2.16.2: Reasons for Decline 4.2.16.3: Proposed Remedies

4.3.2.1: Composition (CJI + 33 Judges)

4.3.2.2: Appointment of Judges (Article 124(2)) (CJI by President - seniority convention; Other Judges by President after consultation with Collegium; Evolution of Collegium - First, Second, Third Judges Cases; NJAC and Fourth Judges Case; Current Debates - MoP).

Details of Appointment

4.3.2.3: Qualifications (Art 124(3)) 4.3.2.4: Oath or Affirmation (Art 124(6)) 4.3.2.5: Tenure and Removal (Impeachment) 4.3.2.6: Salaries and Allowances (Art 125) 4.3.2.7: Acting Chief Justice (Art 126) 4.3.2.8: Ad hoc Judges (Art 127) 4.3.2.9: Retired Judges as SC Judges (Art 128) 4.3.2.10: Seat of Supreme Court (Art 130) 4.3.2.11: Procedure of Court (Art 145)

4.3.4.1: Original Jurisdiction (Art 131) 4.3.4.2: Writ Jurisdiction (Art 32) 4.3.4.3: Appellate Jurisdiction (Art 132-136) 4.3.4.4: Advisory Jurisdiction (Art 143) 4.3.4.5: A Court of Record (Art 129) 4.3.4.6: Power of Judicial Review 4.3.4.7: Other Powers (Art 142, 141, 137, 139A)

5.1.1.1: Constitutional Position 5.1.1.2: Appointment (Art 155) & Conventions 5.1.1.3: Qualifications (Art 157) 5.1.1.4: Conditions of Office (Art 158) 5.1.1.5: Oath or Affirmation (Art 159) 5.1.1.6: Term of Office (Art 156) 5.1.1.7: Powers and Functions 5.1.1.8: Constitutional Position (Aid & Advice) 5.1.1.9: Discretionary Powers (Art 163(2)) 5.1.1.10: Role of Governor – Controversies & Recommendations 5.1.1.11: Special Responsibilities (Art 371 series) 5.1.1.12: Immunities (Art 361)

5.1.2.1: Constitutional Position: Real Executive Head 5.1.2.2: Appointment (Art 164(1)) 5.1.2.3: Oath, Term, Salary 5.1.2.4: Powers and Functions 5.1.2.5: Relationship with the Governor

5.1.3.1: Article 163: Aid and Advise Governor 5.1.3.2: Article 164: Other Provisions (Size, Responsibility) 5.1.3.3: Composition 5.1.3.4: Collective & Individual Responsibility

5.1.4.1: Constitutional Position: Highest Law Officer 5.1.4.2: Appointment and Term 5.1.4.3: Duties and Functions 5.1.4.4: Rights

5.3.1.1: Constitutional Position 5.3.1.2: Organisation 5.3.1.3: Independence of High Courts 5.3.1.4: Jurisdiction and Powers 5.3.1.5: High Courts for Union Territories (Art 241)

5.3.2.1: Structure and Organisation 5.3.2.2: Appointment of District Judges (Art 233) 5.3.2.3: Appointment of other Judges (Art 234) 5.3.2.4: Control over Subordinate Courts (Art 235) 5.3.2.5: Interpretation (Art 236) 5.3.2.6: Application to magistrates (Art 237) 5.3.2.7: Challenges facing subordinate judiciary

5.3.3.1: Constitutional Basis (Art 39A) 5.3.3.2: Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 5.3.3.3: NALSA, SLSAs, DLSAs, TLSAs 5.3.3.4: Lok Adalats & Permanent Lok Adalats 5.3.3.5: Gram Nyayalayas Act, 2008 5.3.3.6: Family Courts Act, 1984

5.3.4.1: Rationale for Tribunals 5.3.4.2: Article 323A: Administrative Tribunals (CAT, SATs) 5.3.4.3: Article 323B: Tribunals for Other Matters 5.3.4.4: Differences between Courts and Tribunals 5.3.4.5: Judicial Review of Tribunal Decisions (Chandra Kumar Case) 5.3.4.6: Issues related to Tribunals 5.3.4.7: Recent Developments: Tribunal Reforms Act, 2021

6.1.3.1: Early attempts 6.1.3.2: Lord Mayo's Resolution (1870) 6.1.3.3: Lord Ripon's Resolution (1882) - 'Magna Carta' 6.1.3.4: Royal Commission on Decentralisation (1907) 6.1.3.5: GoI Act, 1919 (Dyarchy) 6.1.3.6: GoI Act, 1935 (Provincial Autonomy)

6.1.4.1: Article 40 (DPSP) 6.1.4.2: CDP (1952) and NES (1953) 6.1.4.3: Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957) 6.1.4.4: K. Santhanam Committee (1963) 6.1.4.5: Ashok Mehta Committee (1977-78) 6.1.4.6: G.V.K. Rao Committee (1985) 6.1.4.7: L.M. Singhvi Committee (1986) 6.1.4.8: Thungon Committee (1988) 6.1.4.9: Gadgil Committee (1988) 6.1.4.10: Attempts at Constitutionalisation

6.2.4.1: Background and Objectives 6.2.4.2: Key Features 6.2.4.3: Implementation – Challenges and Issues

6.3.3.1: Municipal Corporation 6.3.3.2: Municipality/Municipal Council 6.3.3.3: Notified Area Committee 6.3.3.4: Town Area Committee 6.3.3.5: Cantonment Board 6.3.3.6: Township 6.3.3.7: Port Trust 6.3.3.8: Special Purpose Agency

7.1.5.1: Background (69th Amdt) 7.1.5.2: Administrator: LG 7.1.5.3: Legislative Assembly for NCTD 7.1.5.4: Council of Ministers 7.1.5.5: Difference of opinion LG vs CoM 7.1.5.6: Article 239AB (Failure of machinery) 7.1.5.7: Interpretation of LG's powers vs. Elected Govt (SC Judgments) 7.1.5.8: GNCTD (Amendment) Acts 2021 & 2023

7.2.2.1: Applicability 7.2.2.2: Declaration of Scheduled Areas 7.2.2.3: Executive Power of State and Union 7.2.2.4: Tribes Advisory Council (TAC) 7.2.2.5: Law Applicable – Governor's Powers 7.2.2.6: PESA Act, 1996 in Fifth Schedule Areas

7.2.3.1: Applicability (Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram) 7.2.3.2: Autonomous Districts and Regions 7.2.3.3: District Council and Regional Council 7.2.3.4: Application of Acts 7.2.3.5: Dissolution of Councils 7.2.3.6: Disputes between Councils 7.2.3.7: Article 244A (Autonomous State in Assam) 7.2.3.8: Current Autonomous Councils 7.2.3.9: Demands for inclusion in Sixth Schedule

9.8.3.1: Establishment 9.8.3.2: Composition of Lokpal 9.8.3.3: Appointment Process 9.8.3.4: Tenure 9.8.3.5: Jurisdiction of Lokpal 9.8.3.6: Powers 9.8.3.7: Procedure and Timelines 9.8.3.8: Relationship with CBI and CVC

10.2.6.1: List of 22 recognized languages 10.2.6.2: Original and Added Languages 10.2.6.3: Significance of Inclusion 10.2.6.4: Demands for Inclusion & Criteria

10.3.2.1: Concept and Rationale 10.3.2.2: Current AIS (IAS, IPS, IFoS) 10.3.2.3: Creation of new AIS (RS special power) 10.3.2.4: Recruitment and Control 10.3.2.5: Debates and Proposed Rule Changes

10.4.6.1: Originally a Fundamental Right 10.4.6.2: Deleted as FR by 44th Amendment 10.4.6.3: Inserted as constitutional/legal right (Art 300A) 10.4.6.4: Implications

10.6.4.1: Evolution 10.6.4.2: Current Trends

10.6.5.1: Registration 10.6.5.2: Criteria for National Party 10.6.5.3: Criteria for State Party 10.6.5.4: Benefits of Recognition 10.6.5.5: Derecognition

10.11.2.1: Definition, Characteristics, Types 10.11.2.2: Role in Development and Governance 10.11.2.3: Funding of NGOs (FCRA) 10.11.2.4: Issues and Challenges 10.11.2.5: Government-NGO interface

10.11.3.1: Concept, Features 10.11.3.2: Role in Socio-Economic Development 10.11.3.3: SHG-Bank Linkage, DAY-NRLM 10.11.3.4: Challenges

11.2.4.1: Scheduled Castes (SCs) 11.2.4.2: Scheduled Tribes (STs) 11.2.4.3: Other Backward Classes (OBCs) 11.2.4.4: Minorities 11.2.4.5: Women 11.2.4.6: Children 11.2.4.7: Elderly/Senior Citizens 11.2.4.8: Persons with Disabilities (Divyangjan) 11.2.4.9: Transgender Persons