The Indian Constitution: A Digital Explorer

Module 1: The Philosophical Moorings and Evolution of the Indian Constitution

Topic 1.1: Constitutionalism and the Idea of a Constitution

1.1.1: Meaning and Significance of Constitutionalism 1.1.2: Types of Constitutions 1.1.3: Functions of a Constitution

Topic 1.2: Historical Antecedents & Colonial Legacy influencing the Indian Constitution

1.2.1: Pre-Company Rule Legal Traditions

1.2.2: The Company Rule (1773–1858) – Key Acts and their Impact

1.2.2.1: Regulating Act, 1773 1.2.2.2: Pitt’s India Act, 1784 1.2.2.3: Charter Act of 1813 1.2.2.4: Charter Act of 1833 1.2.2.5: Charter Act of 1853

1.2.3: The Crown Rule (1858–1947) – Gradual Introduction of Representative Elements

1.2.3.1: Government of India Act, 1858 1.2.3.2: Indian Councils Act, 1861 1.2.3.3: Indian Councils Act, 1892 1.2.3.4: Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto) 1.2.3.5: Government of India Act, 1919 (Mont-Chel) 1.2.3.6: Simon Commission & Nehru Report 1.2.3.7: Round Table Conferences & Poona Pact 1.2.3.8: Government of India Act, 1935 1.2.3.9: Cripps, Wavell, Cabinet Mission Plans 1.2.3.10: Indian Independence Act, 1947

1.2.4: Analysis of Colonial Legacy

Topic 1.3: The Making of the Indian Constitution: Aspirations and Challenges

1.3.1: Nationalist Movement & Demand for Constituent Assembly

1.3.2: Composition and Nature of the Constituent Assembly

1.3.2.1: Election and Representation 1.3.2.2: Socio-economic composition & diversity 1.3.2.3: Was it Representative? - Critical Analysis

1.3.3: Working of the Constituent Assembly

1.3.3.1: Initial Meetings & Presidents 1.3.3.2: Objectives Resolution 1.3.3.3: Major Committees 1.3.3.4: Role of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar 1.3.3.5: Debates on Key Issues

1.3.4: Sources of the Indian Constitution: A Synthesis of Global Best Practices and Indigenous Needs

1.3.4.1: GoI Act, 1935 as Blueprint 1.3.4.2: Borrowed Features (Detailed Table) 1.3.4.3: Adaptation of Borrowed Features

1.3.5: Enactment, Adoption, Commencement 1.3.6: Salient Features (Brief Intro) 1.3.7: Criticisms of Constituent Assembly & Process

Module 2: The Preamble: Soul and Identity of the Constitution

Topic 2.1: Text, History, and Inspiration of the Preamble

2.1.1: Full Text of the Preamble 2.1.2: Linkage with Objectives Resolution 2.1.3: Inspirations from other Constitutions

Topic 2.2: Deconstructing the Keywords in the Preamble

2.2.1: Source of Authority: "We, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA"

2.2.2: Nature of the Indian State

2.2.2.1: Sovereign 2.2.2.2: Socialist 2.2.2.3: Secular 2.2.2.4: Democratic 2.2.2.5: Republic

2.2.3: Objectives of the Indian State

2.2.3.1: Justice 2.2.3.2: Liberty 2.2.3.3: Equality 2.2.3.4: Fraternity

2.2.4: Date of Adoption & Significance

Topic 2.3: The Preamble's Legal Status and Significance

2.3.1: Is the Preamble a part of the Constitution?

2.3.1.1: Berubari Union Case (1960) 2.3.1.2: Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973) 2.3.1.3: LIC of India Case (1995)

2.3.2: Amendability of the Preamble

2.3.2.1: Kesavananda Bharati Case on Amendability 2.3.2.2: The 42nd Amendment Additions

2.3.3: Role of the Preamble in Constitutional Interpretation

2.3.3.1: Aid to Interpret Ambiguous Provisions 2.3.3.2: Reflecting Basic Structure

2.3.4: Non-Justiciability

Topic 2.4: The Preamble as a Guiding Philosophy and its Contemporary Relevance

2.4.1: Guiding Legislative and Executive Actions 2.4.2: Contemporary Relevance in Discourse & Policy 2.4.3: Reminder of Foundational Values

Module 3: Salient Features of the Indian Constitution: A Unique Blend

Topic 3.1: Core Characteristics Defining the Indian Constitution

3.1.1: Lengthiest Written Constitution 3.1.2: Drawn from Various Sources 3.1.3: Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility

3.1.4: Federal System with Unitary Bias

3.1.4.1: Federal features 3.1.4.2: Unitary/Non-Federal features 3.1.4.3: Critical evaluation

3.1.5: Parliamentary Form of Government (Central and State Levels)

3.1.5.1: Features 3.1.5.2: Reasons for adoption 3.1.5.3: Distinction from British model

3.1.6: Synthesis of Parliamentary Sovereignty and Judicial Supremacy

3.1.6.1: Limited Parliamentary Sovereignty 3.1.6.2: Judicial Supremacy 3.1.6.3: Achieving a balance

3.1.7: Integrated and Independent Judiciary

3.1.7.1: Single hierarchical system 3.1.7.2: Provisions ensuring judicial independence

3.1.8: Fundamental Rights 3.1.9: Directive Principles of State Policy 3.1.10: Fundamental Duties 3.1.11: A Secular State 3.1.12: Universal Adult Franchise 3.1.13: Single Citizenship 3.1.14: Emergency Provisions 3.1.15: Three-tier Government 3.1.16: Cooperative Societies

Topic 3.2: Critical Evaluation of the Salient Features

3.2.1: Strengths and Weaknesses 3.2.2: Adaptability and Resilience

Module 4: The Union and its Territory (Part I – Articles 1 to 4)

Topic 4.1: Defining India: Name, Territory, and Nature of the Union

4.1.1: Article 1: Name and territory of the Union

4.1.1.1: "India, that is Bharat" 4.1.1.2: Classification of Territory 4.1.1.3: Nature of the Union 4.1.1.4: Current States and UTs

Topic 4.2: Admission and Establishment of New States

4.2.1: Article 2: Parliament's power to admit into the Union of India, or establish, new states.

4.2.1.1: "Admission" vs. "Establishment" 4.2.1.2: Conditions and Terms

Topic 4.3: Formation of New States and Alteration of Existing States within India

4.3.1: Parliament's power to:

4.3.1.1: Form a new State 4.3.1.2: Increase area 4.3.1.3: Diminish area 4.3.1.4: Alter boundaries 4.3.1.5: Alter name

4.3.2: Procedure for Reorganisation of States under Article 3

4.3.2.1: President's Recommendation 4.3.2.2: Referral to State Legislature 4.3.2.3: Parliament Not Bound 4.3.2.4: Simple Majority Passage 4.3.2.5: Not an Art 368 Amendment

4.3.3: Cession of Indian Territory to a Foreign State

4.3.3.1: Interpretation of Art 3 4.3.3.2: Berubari Union Case 4.3.3.3: Boundary Disputes vs. Cession

Topic 4.4: Consequential Amendments and Scope of Parliamentary Power

4.4.1: Article 4: Laws made under Articles 2 and 3 to provide for the amendment of the First and the Fourth Schedules and supplemental, incidental and consequential matters.

4.4.1.1: Not Art 368 Amendments

Topic 4.5: Evolution of States and Union Territories in India: A Historical Perspective

4.5.1: Integration of Princely States post-Independence

4.5.1.1: Role of Patel & Menon 4.5.1.2: Instruments of Accession 4.5.1.3: Special Cases

4.5.2: Initial State Classification

4.5.3: Demand for Linguistic Reorganisation

4.5.3.1: Dhar Commission 4.5.3.2: JVP Committee 4.5.3.3: Creation of Andhra State

4.5.4: States Reorganisation Commission (SRC), 1953 (Fazl Ali Commission)

4.5.4.1: Recommendations 4.5.4.2: States Reorganisation Act, 1956

4.5.5: Creation of New States and Union Territories after 1956

4.5.5.1: Maharashtra & Gujarat (1960) 4.5.5.2: Dadra & Nagar Haveli (1961) 4.5.5.3: Goa, Daman & Diu (1962) 4.5.5.4: Puducherry (1962) 4.5.5.5: Nagaland (1963) 4.5.5.6: Haryana, Chandigarh (1966) 4.5.5.7: Himachal Pradesh (1971) 4.5.5.8: Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya (1972) 4.5.5.9: Sikkim (1975) 4.5.5.10: Mizoram, Arunachal, Goa (1987) 4.5.5.11: Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand (2000) 4.5.5.12: Telangana (2014) 4.5.5.13: J&K Reorganisation (2019) 4.5.5.14: Merger of DNH & DD (2020)

4.5.6: Contemporary Demands for New States and Issues

4.5.6.1: Basis for Demands 4.5.6.2: Examples of Demands 4.5.6.3: Pros and Cons of Smaller States

Module 5: Citizenship (Part II – Articles 5 to 11; The Citizenship Act, 1955)

Topic 5.1: Understanding Citizenship: Concept and Significance

5.1.1: Meaning of Citizen vs. Alien 5.1.2: Rights exclusive to Citizens in India 5.1.3: Duties exclusive to Citizens in India

Topic 5.2: Constitutional Provisions for Citizenship at the Commencement

5.2.1: Article 5: Citizenship by Domicile

5.2.1.1: Conditions for Citizenship by Domicile

5.2.2: Article 6: Citizenship of persons migrated from Pakistan to India

5.2.2.1: Migrated before July 19, 1948 5.2.2.2: Migrated on/after July 19, 1948

5.2.3: Article 7: Citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan

5.2.3.1: Migrants to Pakistan who returned

5.2.4: Article 8: Citizenship of Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs) residing outside India

5.2.4.1: Conditions for PIOs

5.2.5: Article 9: Prohibition on Dual Citizenship

5.2.5.1: Prohibition Clause

5.2.6: Article 10: Continuance of Rights of Citizenship

5.2.6.1: Subject to Parliamentary Law

5.2.7: Article 11: Parliament's Power to Regulate Citizenship by Law

5.2.7.1: Parliamentary Power

Topic 5.3: The Citizenship Act, 1955 (as amended)

5.3.1: Modes of Acquisition of Indian Citizenship

5.3.1.1: By Birth (Jus Soli) 5.3.1.2: By Descent (Jus Sanguinis) 5.3.1.3: By Registration 5.3.1.4: By Naturalisation 5.3.1.5: By Incorporation of Territory

5.3.2: Modes of Loss of Indian Citizenship

5.3.2.1: By Renunciation 5.3.2.2: By Termination 5.3.2.3: By Deprivation

Topic 5.4: The Concept of Single Citizenship in India

5.4.1: Rationale 5.4.2: Comparison with Dual Citizenship

Topic 5.5: Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) Scheme

5.5.1: Evolution from PIO Scheme 5.5.2: Eligibility Criteria 5.5.3: Rights and Privileges 5.5.4: Restrictions & Limitations 5.5.5: NRI vs PIO vs OCI

Topic 5.6: Contemporary Issues and Debates in Citizenship

5.6.1: The Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 (CAA)

5.6.1.1: Key Provisions 5.6.1.2: Government Rationale 5.6.1.3: Criticisms & Controversies 5.6.1.4: Current Legal Status 5.6.1.5: CAA Rules Implementation

5.6.2: National Register of Citizens (NRC)

5.6.2.1: NRC in Assam 5.6.2.2: Objectives, Process, Outcomes (Assam) 5.6.2.3: Issues & Challenges (Assam) 5.6.2.4: Debate on Nationwide NRC

5.6.3: Rights of Refugees and Stateless Persons in India

5.6.3.1: Stance on Refugee Conventions 5.6.3.2: Ad-hoc Policies & Judicial Interventions 5.6.3.3: Refugees vs. Illegal Immigrants

5.6.4: Domicile Reservations & Single Citizenship

Module 6: Fundamental Rights (Part III – Articles 12 to 35)

Topic 6.1: Genesis, Nature, and Significance of Fundamental Rights

6.1.1: Inspiration & Sources 6.1.2: Why 'Fundamental'?

6.1.3: Features of Fundamental Rights

6.1.3.1: Availability 6.1.3.2: Not Absolute but Qualified 6.1.3.3: Wording (Negative/Positive) 6.1.3.4: Justiciable 6.1.3.5: Guaranteed by Supreme Court 6.1.3.6: Amendability 6.1.3.7: Suspension during Emergency 6.1.3.8: Restrictions by Art 31A,B,C 6.1.3.9: Application to Armed Forces 6.1.3.10: Restriction during Martial Law 6.1.3.11: Self-Executory vs. Legislative Backing

Topic 6.2: Definition of 'State' for the purpose of Fundamental Rights

6.2.1: Article 12: Inclusive definition of 'State'

6.2.1.1: Union Government & Parliament 6.2.1.2: State Government & Legislature 6.2.1.3: Local Authorities 6.2.1.4: Other Authorities 6.2.1.5: Judicial Interpretation Tests 6.2.1.6: Judiciary as 'State'? 6.2.1.7: Relevance of Definition

Topic 6.3: Laws Inconsistent with or in Derogation of Fundamental Rights

6.3.1: Article 13: Power of Judicial Review

6.3.1.1: Art 13(1) - Pre-constitutional laws 6.3.1.2: Art 13(2) - Post-constitutional laws 6.3.1.3: Art 13(3) - Definition of 'law' 6.3.1.4: Art 13(4) - Constitutional Amendment 6.3.1.5: Doctrines under Article 13

Topic 6.4: Right to Equality (Articles 14-18)

6.4.1: Article 14 6.4.2: Article 15 6.4.3: Article 16 6.4.4: Article 17 6.4.5: Article 18

Topic 6.5: Right to Freedom (Articles 19-22)

6.5.1: Article 19 (Six Freedoms) 6.5.2: Article 20 6.5.3: Article 21 & 21A 6.5.4: Article 22

Topic 6.6: Right against Exploitation (Articles 23-24)

6.6.1: Article 23 6.6.2: Article 24

Topic 6.7: Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25-28)

6.7.1: Embodies Secularism 6.7.2: Article 25 6.7.3: Article 26 6.7.4: Article 27 6.7.5: Article 28

Topic 6.8: Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29-30)

6.8.1: Article 29 6.8.2: Article 30

Topic 6.9: Right to Property (Evolution from FR to Constitutional/Legal Right)

6.9.1: Original Position 6.9.2: Amendments to Art 31 6.9.3: Judicial Scrutiny & Conflict 6.9.4: 44th Amendment 6.9.5: Current Status (Art 300A)

Topic 6.10: Saving of Certain Laws (Articles 31A, 31B, 31C)

6.10.1: Rationale 6.10.2: Article 31A 6.10.3: Article 31B (Ninth Schedule) 6.10.4: Article 31C

Topic 6.11: Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32)

6.11.1: "Heart and Soul" 6.11.2: Art 32(1) - Right to move SC 6.11.3: Art 32(2) - SC power to issue writs 6.11.4: Art 32(3) - Parliament empowers other courts 6.11.5: Art 32(4) - Non-suspension

6.11.6: Nature and Scope of Writs

6.11.6.1: Habeas Corpus 6.11.6.2: Mandamus 6.11.6.3: Prohibition 6.11.6.4: Certiorari 6.11.6.5: Quo Warranto

6.11.7: Art 32 vs. Art 226 6.11.8: PIL under Art 32

Topic 6.12: Armed Forces and Fundamental Rights (Article 33)

6.12.1: Parliament's Power to Restrict/Abrogate 6.12.2: Objective 6.12.3: Vested only in Parliament 6.12.4: Laws under Art 33 Non-challengeable

Topic 6.13: Martial Law and Fundamental Rights (Article 34)

6.13.1: Restriction of FRs during Martial Law 6.13.2: Indemnification Power of Parliament 6.13.3: 'Martial Law' - Meaning & Distinction 6.13.4: Authority to Declare

Topic 6.14: Effecting Certain Fundamental Rights - Legislation (Article 35)

6.14.1: Exclusive Parliamentary Power for Certain FRs 6.14.2: Parliamentary Power for Punishments

Topic 6.15: Critical Evaluation of Fundamental Rights

6.15.1: Strengths 6.15.2: Criticisms 6.15.3: Dynamic Nature 6.15.4: Balancing Liberty & Social Control

Module 7: Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) (Part IV – Articles 36 to 51)

Topic 7.1: Genesis, Concept, and Philosophy of DPSPs

7.1.1: Inspiration and Sources

7.1.1.1: Irish Constitution 7.1.1.2: Instruments of Instructions (GoI Act 1935) 7.1.1.3: Ideals of National Movement 7.1.1.4: Fabian Socialism & Gandhian Philosophy

7.1.2: Nature and Objectives of DPSPs

7.1.2.1: Aim for Welfare State 7.1.2.2: Socio-Economic Program 7.1.2.3: Fundamental in Governance (Art 37) 7.1.2.4: Non-Justiciable (Art 37) 7.1.2.5: Moral Obligation on State (Art 37) 7.1.2.6: Guiding Ideals for State

7.1.3: Definition of 'State' (Article 36)

7.1.3.1: Definition as per Article 12

Topic 7.2: Classification of Directive Principles

7.2.1: Broad Categorization (Not Formal)

7.2.1.1: Socialist Principles

Article 38: Social Order for Welfare Article 39: Principles of Policy Article 39A: Equal Justice & Free Legal Aid Article 41: Right to Work, Education, Public Assistance Article 42: Just Work Conditions & Maternity Relief Article 43: Living Wage for Workers Article 43A: Workers' Participation in Management Article 47 (partly): Nutrition, Standard of Living, Public Health

7.2.1.2: Gandhian Principles

Article 40: Village Panchayats Article 43 (partly): Cottage Industries Article 43B: Co-operative Societies Article 46: Interests of Weaker Sections Article 47 (partly): Prohibition of Intoxicants Article 48 (partly): Prohibition of Cow Slaughter

7.2.1.3: Liberal-Intellectual Principles

Article 44: Uniform Civil Code Article 45: Early Childhood Care & Education Article 48 (partly): Modern Agriculture & Animal Husbandry Article 48A: Environment, Forests, Wildlife Article 49: Protection of Monuments Article 50: Separation of Judiciary from Executive Article 51: International Peace & Security

Topic 7.3: New Directive Principles Added by Amendments

7.3.1: 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976

7.3.1.1: Article 39(f) (Modified) 7.3.1.2: Article 39A 7.3.1.3: Article 43A 7.3.1.4: Article 48A

7.3.2: 44th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1978

7.3.2.1: Article 38(2)

7.3.3: 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002

7.3.3.1: Article 45 (Modified)

7.3.4: 97th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2011

7.3.4.1: Article 43B

Topic 7.4: Significance and Implementation of DPSPs

7.4.1: Significance despite Non-Justiciability

7.4.1.1: Guiding Stars for State 7.4.1.2: Continuity in Policies 7.4.1.3: Amplify Preamble 7.4.1.4: Yardstick for Performance 7.4.1.5: Aid in Interpretation 7.4.1.6: Shaping Public Opinion

7.4.2: Implementation through Laws and Policies

Examples of Implementation Social Welfare & Educational Schemes

Topic 7.5: Relationship and Conflict between Fundamental Rights (FRs) and DPSPs

7.5.1: Initial Judicial View: FRs Superior

7.5.1.1: Champakam Dorairajan Case

7.5.2: Attempts to give Primacy to DPSPs

7.5.2.1: Golak Nath Case 7.5.2.2: 24th Amendment 7.5.2.3: 25th Amendment (Art 31C)

7.5.3: Doctrine of Basic Structure and Harmonious Construction

7.5.3.1: Kesavananda Bharati Case

7.5.4: Further Expansion and Contraction

7.5.4.1: 42nd Amendment (Expansion of Art 31C) 7.5.4.2: Minerva Mills Case

7.5.5: Current Position

7.5.5.1: FRs Supremacy, DPSPs Fundamental 7.5.5.2: Parliament's Amending Power 7.5.5.3: Article 31C Current Status

Topic 7.6: Criticism of Directive Principles

7.6.1: Non-Justiciable Nature 7.6.2: Illogically Arranged 7.6.3: Conservative and Outdated 7.6.4: Potential for Constitutional Conflict 7.6.5: Vague and Unclear Terms

Topic 7.7: DPSPs outside Part IV of the Constitution

7.7.1: Art 335 - Claims of SCs/STs to Services 7.7.2: Art 350A - Instruction in Mother-Tongue 7.7.3: Art 351 - Development of Hindi

Module 8: Fundamental Duties (Part IVA – Article 51A)

Topic 8.1: Genesis and Rationale for Fundamental Duties

8.1.1: Not in Original Constitution 8.1.2: Inspiration from Other Constitutions

8.1.3: Swaran Singh Committee Recommendations (1976)

8.1.3.1: Appointment and Mandate 8.1.3.2: Key Recommendations 8.1.3.3: Acceptance of Recommendations

8.1.4: Added by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976

8.1.4.1: Insertion of Part IVA, Art 51A 8.1.4.2: Initial 10 Duties

Topic 8.2: List of Fundamental Duties (Article 51A)

8.2.1: The Ten Original Duties (a to j)

(a): Abide by Constitution, respect ideals & symbols (b): Cherish ideals of national struggle (c): Uphold sovereignty, unity, integrity (d): Defend country, render national service (e): Promote harmony, renounce derogatory practices (f): Value composite culture (g): Protect environment, compassion for creatures (h): Develop scientific temper, humanism, inquiry (i): Safeguard public property, abjure violence (j): Strive for excellence

8.2.2: Addition of 11th Fundamental Duty (k) by 86th Amendment

(k): Provide education opportunities (6-14 years)

Topic 8.3: Features and Nature of Fundamental Duties

8.3.1: Applicable only to Citizens 8.3.2: Non-Justiciable 8.3.3: Blend of Moral and Civic Duties 8.3.4: Reflect Indian Way of Life 8.3.5: Reminder to Citizens

Topic 8.4: Significance of Fundamental Duties

8.4.1: Constant Reminder 8.4.2: Warning against Anti-Social Activities 8.4.3: Source of Inspiration 8.4.4: Aid in Interpretation 8.4.5: Enforceable by Law (Indirectly)

Topic 8.5: Criticism of Fundamental Duties

8.5.1: Not Exhaustive 8.5.2: Vague and Ambiguous 8.5.3: Non-Justiciable - "Moral Precepts" 8.5.4: Superfluous 8.5.5: Placement as Appendage

Topic 8.6: Verma Committee Observations (1999)

8.6.1: Mandate of Committee 8.6.2: Identification of Legal Provisions 8.6.3: Emphasis on Awareness

Topic 8.7: Judicial Approach to Fundamental Duties

8.7.1: Interpretation of Statutes 8.7.2: Importance vis-a-vis FRs 8.7.3: Increasing Citations

Topic 8.8: Contemporary Relevance and Debates

8.8.1: Growing Emphasis on Duties 8.8.2: Calls for Justiciability/More Duties 8.8.3: Balancing Rights and Duties

Module 9: Amendment of the Constitution (Part XX – Article 368)

Topic 9.1: Rationale and Necessity for Constitutional Amendment

9.1.1: Constitution as Living Document 9.1.2: Balance between Rigidity & Flexibility 9.1.3: Avoiding Overhauls 9.1.4: Unique Blend of Indian Constitution

Topic 9.2: Procedure for Amendment as Laid Down in Article 368

9.2.1: Initiation of Amendment Bill

9.2.1.1: Introduction in Either House 9.2.1.2: Not in State Legislatures 9.2.1.3: Minister or Private Member 9.2.1.4: No Prior Presidential Permission

9.2.2: Passage of the Bill in Parliament

9.2.2.1: Special Majority Passage 9.2.2.2: Separate Passage by Each House 9.2.2.3: No Joint Sitting

9.2.3: Ratification by State Legislatures (for certain amendments)

9.2.3.1: For Federal Provisions 9.2.3.2: State Ratification by Simple Majority 9.2.3.3: No Time Limit for States 9.2.3.4: List of Federal Provisions

9.2.4: Assent of the President

9.2.4.1: Presentation for Assent 9.2.4.2: Obligatory Assent (24th Amd) 9.2.4.3: Cannot Withhold or Return

9.2.5: Bill becomes an Act

9.2.5.1: Constitution Amended

Topic 9.3: Types of Amendments (Based on Procedure)

9.3.1: Amendment by Simple Majority of Parliament (Outside Art 368)

9.3.1.1: Procedure and Scope 9.3.1.2: Examples

9.3.2: Amendment by Special Majority of Parliament (As per Art 368)

9.3.2.1: Most Provisions 9.3.2.2: Special Majority Defined 9.3.2.3: Examples

9.3.3: Amendment by Special Majority + State Ratification (As per Art 368)

9.3.3.1: Federal Provisions 9.3.3.2: List of Provisions

Topic 9.4: Scope of Parliament's Amending Power and the Doctrine of Basic Structure

9.4.1: Initial Debates: Can FRs be amended?

9.4.1.1: Shankari Prasad Case 9.4.1.2: Sajjan Singh Case

9.4.2: Shift in Judicial Stance

9.4.2.1: Golak Nath Case

9.4.3: Parliamentary Response and Assertion of Power

9.4.3.1: 24th Amendment Act

9.4.4: Emergence of the Basic Structure Doctrine

9.4.4.1: Kesavananda Bharati Case

9.4.5: Attempts to Nullify Basic Structure and Judicial Reaffirmation

9.4.5.1: Indira Gandhi Election Case 9.4.5.2: 42nd Amendment Act 9.4.5.3: Minerva Mills Case 9.4.5.4: Waman Rao Case 9.4.5.5: I.R. Coelho Case (Ninth Schedule)

Topic 9.5: Elements of the Basic Structure (Illustrative)

Illustrative List of Basic Features

Topic 9.6: Criticism of the Amendment Procedure

9.6.1: No Special Body 9.6.2: Limited Role of States 9.6.3: Parliament's Dominance 9.6.4: No Time Frame for State Ratification 9.6.5: No Joint Sitting 9.6.6: State Ratification Process Issues 9.6.7: Vagueness of Basic Structure

Topic 9.7: Significance of Constitutional Amendments in India

9.7.1: Reflecting Socio-Economic Changes 9.7.2: Strengthening Democratic Institutions 9.7.3: Responding to Judicial Interpretations 9.7.4: Overview of Landmark Amendments

Module 10: The Basic Structure Doctrine: Guardian of Constitutional Identity

Topic 10.1: Conceptual Understanding of the Basic Structure Doctrine

10.1.1: Meaning 10.1.2: Rationale 10.1.3: Uncodified Nature

Topic 10.2: Evolution of the Basic Structure Doctrine – A Judicial Journey

10.2.1: Pre-Kesavananda Phase: Seeds of the Doctrine

10.2.1.1: Shankari Prasad & Sajjan Singh 10.2.1.2: I.C. Golaknath Case

10.2.2: The Landmark Enunciation: Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973)

10.2.2.1: Context & Bench 10.2.2.2: Key Rulings 10.2.2.3: No Exhaustive List

10.2.3: Post-Kesavananda Developments and Application

10.2.3.1: Indira Gandhi Election Case 10.2.3.2: 42nd Amendment Challenge 10.2.3.3: Minerva Mills Case 10.2.3.4: Waman Rao Case 10.2.3.5: S.P. Sampath Kumar Case 10.2.3.6: Kihoto Hollohan Case 10.2.3.7: L. Chandra Kumar Case 10.2.3.8: I.R. Coelho Case 10.2.3.9: NJAC Case

Topic 10.3: Components of the Basic Structure – An Evolving List

Illustrative List of Basic Features (Reiteration and Expansion)

Topic 10.4: Significance and Impact of the Basic Structure Doctrine

10.4.1: Check on Overreach 10.4.2: Upholding Constitutional Supremacy 10.4.3: Maintaining Identity & Continuity 10.4.4: Strengthening Judicial Review 10.4.5: Contribution to Constitutionalism 10.4.6: Providing Stability & Certainty

Topic 10.5: Criticisms and Debates Surrounding the Basic Structure Doctrine

10.5.1: Undemocratic Nature 10.5.2: Vagueness & Lack of Clarity 10.5.3: Potential for Subjectivity 10.5.4: Hindrance to Reforms? 10.5.5: Lack of Textual Basis 10.5.6: Impact on Parliamentary Sovereignty

Topic 10.6: Comparative Perspective: Basic Structure Doctrine in Other Countries

10.6.1: Similar Doctrines Elsewhere 10.6.2: Influence on Other Judiciaries

Topic 10.7: The Future of the Basic Structure Doctrine

10.7.1: Continuing Relevance 10.7.2: Potential for Evolution 10.7.3: Balancing Judicial Activism & Parliament

Module 11: System of Government: Parliamentary & Federal Structures in India

Topic 11.1: Parliamentary System of Government in India

11.1.1: Introduction to Forms of Government

11.1.1.1: Parliamentary vs. Presidential 11.1.1.2: Basis of Classification

11.1.2: Features of Parliamentary System (Westminster Model)

11.1.2.1: Dual Executive 11.1.2.2: Majority Party Rule 11.1.2.3: Collective Responsibility 11.1.2.4: Individual Responsibility 11.1.2.5: Political Homogeneity 11.1.2.6: Dual Membership 11.1.2.7: Leadership of PM/CM 11.1.2.8: Dissolution of Lower House 11.1.2.9: Secrecy

11.1.3: Reasons for Adopting Parliamentary System

11.1.3.1: Familiarity (Colonial Legacy) 11.1.3.2: Responsibility over Stability 11.1.3.3: Avoiding Executive-Legislature Conflicts 11.1.3.4: Suitability for Indian Society

11.1.4: Merits of Parliamentary System

11.1.4.1: Harmony (Legislature-Executive) 11.1.4.2: Responsible Government 11.1.4.3: Prevents Despotism 11.1.4.4: Ready Alternative Government 11.1.4.5: Wide Representation

11.1.5: Demerits/Challenges in Indian Context

11.1.5.1: Unstable Government 11.1.5.2: No Continuity of Policies 11.1.5.3: Dictatorship of Cabinet/PM 11.1.5.4: Against Separation of Powers 11.1.5.5: Government by Amateurs 11.1.5.6: Decline in Debate Quality 11.1.5.7: Anti-Defection Law Issues

11.1.6: Distinction between Indian and British Models

11.1.6.1: Head of State (Republic vs. Monarchy) 11.1.6.2: Sovereignty (Parliament vs. Constitution) 11.1.6.3: PM's Membership 11.1.6.4: Legal Responsibility of Ministers 11.1.6.5: Shadow Cabinet

11.1.7: Presidential System – A Comparison

11.1.7.1: Features 11.1.7.2: Merits 11.1.7.3: Demerits

11.1.8: Debates on Suitability / Calls for Presidential System

11.1.8.1: Arguments For 11.1.8.2: Arguments Against 11.1.8.3: Swaran Singh Committee Views 11.1.8.4: Current Status of Debate

Topic 11.2: Federal System of Government in India

11.2.1: Introduction to Federalism

11.2.1.1: Meaning 11.2.1.2: Unitary vs. Federal

11.2.2: Federal Features of Indian Constitution 11.2.3: Unitary Features (Unitary Bias)

11.2.4: Critical Evaluation – Nature of Indian Federation

11.2.4.1: Views of Experts 11.2.4.2: "Sui generis" Federalism 11.2.4.3: Dynamic Nature 11.2.4.4: S.R. Bommai Case

11.2.5: Comparative Federalism: India vs. Others (USA, Canada, Australia)

11.2.5.1: Mode of Formation 11.2.5.2: Nature of Statehood 11.2.5.3: Citizenship 11.2.5.4: Residuary Powers 11.2.5.5: Representation in Upper House 11.2.5.6: Amending Process

11.2.6: Trends and Challenges in Indian Federalism

11.2.6.1: Centre-State Relation Issues 11.2.6.2: Demand for State Autonomy 11.2.6.3: Role of Governor 11.2.6.4: Impact of Economic Reforms 11.2.6.5: Regional Parties & Coalitions 11.2.6.6: Fiscal Federalism 11.2.6.7: Inter-State Disputes 11.2.6.8: Cooperative vs. Competitive Federalism

Module 12: Centre-State Relations: Dynamics of Indian Federalism

Topic 12.1: Framework of Centre-State Relations

12.1.1: Constitutional Basis 12.1.2: Importance of Harmony 12.1.3: Threefold Classification

Topic 12.2: Legislative Relations (Articles 245-255)

12.2.1: Territorial Extent of Legislation (Art 245)

12.2.1.1: Parliament's Territorial Power 12.2.1.2: State Legislature's Territorial Power 12.2.1.3: Extra-Territorial Operation 12.2.1.4: Limitations on Jurisdiction

12.2.2: Distribution of Legislative Subjects (Art 246, Seventh Schedule)

12.2.2.1: Union List 12.2.2.2: State List 12.2.2.3: Concurrent List 12.2.2.4: Rules for Overlapping

12.2.3: Residuary Powers of Legislation (Article 248)

12.2.3.1: Parliament's Exclusive Power 12.2.3.2: Reflects Unitary Bias

12.2.4: Parliamentary Legislation in the State Field (Exceptions)

12.2.4.1: Rajya Sabha Resolution (Art 249) 12.2.4.2: National Emergency (Art 250) 12.2.4.3: States' Request (Art 252) 12.2.4.4: International Agreements (Art 253) 12.2.4.5: President's Rule (Art 356)

12.2.5: Centre's Control Over State Legislation

12.2.5.1: Governor's Reservation of Bills 12.2.5.2: President's Prior Sanction 12.2.5.3: Reservation of Financial Bills (Fin. Emergency)

Topic 12.3: Administrative Relations (Articles 256-263)

12.3.1: Distribution of Executive Powers

12.3.1.1: Co-extensive with Legislative Powers 12.3.1.2: Concurrent List Executive Power

12.3.2: Obligation of States and the Union (Art 256)

12.3.2.1: State's Duty to Comply 12.3.2.2: Union's Power of Direction

12.3.3: Control of the Union over States (Art 257)

12.3.3.1: State Power Not to Impede Union 12.3.3.2: Directions for Communications 12.3.3.3: Directions for Railways 12.3.3.4: Sanction under Art 365

12.3.4: Mutual Delegation of Functions (Art 258, 258A)

12.3.4.1: Union to States (Consent) 12.3.4.2: Parliamentary Law (No Consent) 12.3.4.3: States to Union (Consent)

12.3.5: Cooperation Between Centre and States

12.3.5.1: Inter-State Water Disputes 12.3.5.2: Inter-State Council 12.3.5.3: Full Faith and Credit

12.3.6: All-India Services (Article 312)

12.3.6.1: Common to Centre & States 12.3.6.2: Recruitment & Control 12.3.6.3: Impact on Federalism

12.3.7: Integrated Judicial System 12.3.8: Relations during Emergencies

Topic 12.4: Financial Relations (Articles 268-293)

12.4.1: Allocation of Taxing Powers 12.4.2: Distribution of Tax Revenues 12.4.3: GST Regime 12.4.4: Grants-in-Aid 12.4.5: Finance Commission 12.4.6: Protection of States' Interest 12.4.7: Borrowing Powers 12.4.8: Inter-Governmental Tax Immunities

Topic 12.5: Trends in Centre-State Relations & Issues of Contention

12.5.1: Phase I - Centre's Dominance 12.5.2: Phase II - States' Assertiveness 12.5.3: Phase III - Cooperative Federalism 12.5.4: Phase IV - Recent Trends 12.5.5: Role of Governor - Issues 12.5.6: Misuse of Article 356 12.5.7: Deployment of Central Forces 12.5.8: Financial Issues 12.5.9: Encroachment on State List 12.5.10: All-India Services Issues

Topic 12.6: Inter-State Relations

12.6.1: Inter-State Water Disputes 12.6.2: Inter-State Councils 12.6.3: Public Acts, Records, Judicial Proceedings 12.6.4: Inter-State Trade and Commerce 12.6.5: Zonal Councils

Topic 12.7: Recommendations of Various Commissions on Centre-State Relations

12.7.1: ARC-I 12.7.2: Rajamannar Committee 12.7.3: Anandpur Sahib Resolution 12.7.4: West Bengal Memorandum 12.7.5: Sarkaria Commission 12.7.6: Punchhi Commission 12.7.7: NCRWC

Module 13: Emergency Provisions (Part XVIII – Articles 352 to 360)

Topic 13.1: Rationale and Constitutional Framework of Emergency Provisions

13.1.1: Necessity of Provisions 13.1.2: Unique Feature (Federal to Unitary) 13.1.3: Types of Emergencies 13.1.4: Inspiration/Source

Topic 13.2: National Emergency (Article 352)

13.2.1: Grounds for Proclamation 13.2.2: Procedure and Duration 13.2.3: Revocation 13.2.4: Effects 13.2.5: Instances of Proclamation

Topic 13.3: President's Rule / State Emergency (Article 356)

13.3.1: Grounds for Imposition 13.3.2: Approval and Duration 13.3.3: Consequences 13.3.4: Revocation 13.3.5: Use and Misuse (S.R. Bommai)

Topic 13.4: Financial Emergency (Article 360)

13.4.1: Grounds 13.4.2: Approval and Duration 13.4.3: Revocation 13.4.4: Effects 13.4.5: Instances (None)

Topic 13.5: Criticism of Emergency Provisions

13.5.1: Undermining Federalism 13.5.2: Threat to FRs 13.5.3: Potential for Misuse 13.5.4: President as Dictator? 13.5.5: Erosion of Accountability

Topic 13.6: Safeguards Introduced by the 44th Amendment Act, 1978

13.6.1: Key Safeguards by 44th Amendment

Topic 13.7: Judicial Review of Emergency Proclamations

13.7.1: Initial Reluctance 13.7.2: Evolution through Cases

Module 14: The Union Government (Part V – Articles 52 to 151)

Topic 14.1: The President of India

14.1.1: Introduction 14.1.2: Election 14.1.3: Qualifications for Election as President 14.1.4: Oath or Affirmation by the President 14.1.5: Conditions of President's Office 14.1.6: Term of President's Office 14.1.7: Impeachment of President 14.1.8: Vacancy 14.1.9: Powers and Functions 14.1.10: Position & Relation with CoM 14.1.11: Discretionary Powers 14.1.12: Comparison with other Heads of State

Topic 14.2: The Vice-President of India

14.2.1: Introduction 14.2.2: Election 14.2.3: Qualifications 14.2.4: Oath/Affirmation 14.2.5: Conditions of Office 14.2.6: Term of Office 14.2.7: Removal 14.2.8: Vacancy 14.2.9: Powers and Functions 14.2.10: Comparison with US VP

Topic 14.3: The Prime Minister of India

14.3.1: Introduction 14.3.2: Appointment 14.3.3: Oath, Term, Salary 14.3.4: Powers and Functions 14.3.5: Role & Changing Nature 14.3.6: PM-President Relationship

Topic 14.4: Central Council of Ministers

14.4.1: Status & Composition 14.4.2: Oath & Salary 14.4.3: Responsibility 14.4.4: Cabinet vs. CoM 14.4.5: Role & Functions of Cabinet

Topic 14.5: Cabinet Committees

14.5.1: Nature 14.5.2: Purpose 14.5.3: Types 14.5.4: Composition 14.5.5: Important Committees 14.5.6: Functions 14.5.7: Groups of Ministers (GoMs)

Topic 14.6: Parliament – The Union Legislature (Articles 79-122)

14.6.1: Organisation 14.6.2: Composition of Rajya Sabha 14.6.3: Composition of Lok Sabha 14.6.4: Duration of Houses 14.6.5: Membership 14.6.6: Presiding Officers 14.6.7: Leaders in Parliament 14.6.8: Sessions 14.6.9: Language 14.6.10: Rights of Ministers & AG 14.6.11: Devices of Proceedings 14.6.12: Legislative Procedure 14.6.13: Budget 14.6.14: Powers & Functions 14.6.15: Special Powers of Rajya Sabha 14.6.16: Special Powers of Lok Sabha 14.6.17: Privileges & Immunities 14.6.18: Sovereignty of Parliament (Misnomer) 14.6.19: Parliamentary Committees 14.6.20: Decline & Reforms 14.6.21: Forums & Groups

Module 15: The State Government (Part VI – Articles 152 to 237)

Topic 15.1: Introduction to State Government Structure

15.1.1: Definition of "State" (Art 152) 15.1.2: Parallel Structure to Union 15.1.3: Components

Topic 15.2: The Governor

15.2.1: Introduction 15.2.2: Appointment 15.2.3: Qualifications 15.2.4: Conditions of Office 15.2.5: Oath/Affirmation 15.2.6: Term of Office 15.2.7: Powers and Functions 15.2.8: Position & Relation with State CoM 15.2.9: Discretionary Powers 15.2.10: Controversies

Topic 15.3: The Chief Minister

15.3.1: Introduction 15.3.2: Appointment 15.3.3: Oath, Term, Salary 15.3.4: Powers and Functions

Topic 15.4: State Council of Ministers

15.4.1: Status & Composition 15.4.2: Oath & Salary 15.4.3: Responsibility 15.4.4: State Cabinet

Topic 15.5: The Advocate General for the State (Article 165)

15.5.1: Highest Law Officer 15.5.2: Appointment & Term 15.5.3: Duties & Functions 15.5.4: Rights

Topic 15.6: State Legislature – Organisation (Articles 168-177)

15.6.1: Bicameral/Unicameral 15.6.2: Abolition/Creation of Legislative Councils 15.6.3: Composition of Assembly 15.6.4: Composition of Council 15.6.5: Duration 15.6.6: Membership 15.6.7: Presiding Officers 15.6.8: Sessions, etc. 15.6.9: Language 15.6.10: Rights of Ministers & AG

Topic 15.7: Legislative Procedure in State Legislature (Articles 196-201)

15.7.1: Ordinary Bills 15.7.2: Money Bills 15.7.3: Financial Bills 15.7.4: Assent to Bills

Topic 15.8: Budget in State Legislature (Articles 202-206)

15.8.1: Procedure 15.8.2: Charged Expenditure 15.8.3: Other Grants 15.8.4: State Funds

Topic 15.9: Powers and Functions of State Legislature

15.9.1: Legislative Powers 15.9.2: Executive Powers 15.9.3: Financial Powers 15.9.4: Constituent Powers 15.9.5: Electoral Powers 15.9.6: Other Powers

Topic 15.10: Position of Legislative Council – Comparison with Rajya Sabha

15.10.1: Unequal Status with Assembly 15.10.2: Justification/Utility 15.10.3: Criticism 15.10.4: Comparison with Rajya Sabha

Topic 15.11: Privileges of State Legislature (Article 194)

15.11.1: Similar to Parliamentary Privileges 15.11.2: Key Privileges 15.11.3: Courts Cannot Inquire (Art 212)

Module 16: The Judiciary: Guardian of the Constitution and Dispenser of Justice

Topic 16.1: Nature of Indian Judicial System: Integrated and Independent

16.1.1: Integrated Judiciary 16.1.2: Independence of Judiciary

Topic 16.2: The Supreme Court of India (Articles 124-147)

16.2.1: Introduction 16.2.2: Organisation 16.2.3: Appointment of Judges 16.2.4: Qualifications 16.2.5: Oath/Affirmation 16.2.6: Tenure and Removal 16.2.7: Salaries and Allowances 16.2.8: Acting, Ad hoc, Retired Judges 16.2.9: Independence of SC 16.2.10: Jurisdiction and Powers 16.2.11: SC Advocates 16.2.12: Current Issues & Debates

Topic 16.3: The High Courts in the States (Articles 214-231)

16.3.1: Introduction 16.3.2: Organisation 16.3.3: Appointment 16.3.4: Qualifications 16.3.5: Oath/Affirmation 16.3.6: Tenure and Removal 16.3.7: Salaries and Allowances 16.3.8: Transfer of Judges 16.3.9: Acting, Additional, Retired Judges 16.3.10: Independence of HCs 16.3.11: Jurisdiction and Powers

Topic 16.4: Subordinate Courts (Articles 233-237)

16.4.1: Structure & Organisation 16.4.2: Appointment of District Judges 16.4.3: Appointment of Other Judges 16.4.4: Control by High Court 16.4.5: Interpretation of Terms 16.4.6: Application to Magistrates 16.4.7: National Judicial Data Grid

Topic 16.5: Gram Nyayalayas Act, 2008

16.5.1: Rationale 16.5.2: Establishment 16.5.3: Nyayadhikari 16.5.4: Jurisdiction 16.5.5: Implementation Issues

Topic 16.6: Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Mechanisms

16.6.1: Need for ADR 16.6.2: Types of ADR 16.6.3: Constitutional/Legal Basis

Topic 16.7: Judicial Review (Revisited and Expanded)

16.7.1: Meaning & Provisions 16.7.2: Scope 16.7.3: Importance & Basic Structure 16.7.4: Limitations 16.7.5: Review of Amendments 16.7.6: Review of Admin Actions

Topic 16.8: Judicial Activism

16.8.1: Meaning & Justification 16.8.2: Manifestations/Tools 16.8.3: Merits 16.8.4: Demerits (Judicial Overreach) 16.8.5: Judicial Restraint

Topic 16.9: Public Interest Litigation (PIL)

16.9.1: Meaning & Origin 16.9.2: Features 16.9.3: Scope & Significance 16.9.4: Concerns/Misuse & Guidelines

Topic 16.10: Tribunals (Articles 323A, 323B)

16.10.1: Rationale & Establishment 16.10.2: Art 323A - Administrative Tribunals 16.10.3: Art 323B - Tribunals for Other Matters 16.10.4: Differences (Art 323A vs 323B) 16.10.5: Issues with Tribunals 16.10.6: Recent Developments

Topic 16.11: Judicial Reforms in India

16.11.1: Major Issues 16.11.2: Suggested Reforms

Module 17: Local Government: Grassroots Democracy

Topic 17.1: Evolution of Local Self-Government in India

17.1.1: Ancient & Medieval Period 17.1.2: British Period 17.1.3: Post-Independence (Pre-73rd/74th)

Topic 17.2: The Panchayats (Part IX; 73rd Amendment Act, 1992)

17.2.1: Significance 17.2.2: Salient Features 17.2.3: Eleventh Schedule 17.2.4: Compulsory vs. Voluntary Provisions 17.2.5: PESA Act, 1996 17.2.6: Issues & Challenges 17.2.7: Measures to Strengthen

Topic 17.3: The Municipalities (Part IX-A; 74th Amendment Act, 1992)

17.3.1: Significance 17.3.2: Salient Features 17.3.3: Twelfth Schedule 17.3.4: Types of ULBs 17.3.5: Issues & Challenges 17.3.6: Measures to Strengthen

Module 18: Union Territories and Special Areas

Topic 18.1: Union Territories (Part VIII – Articles 239 to 241)

18.1.1: Concept & Rationale 18.1.2: Administration (Administrator) 18.1.3: Legislative Power 18.1.4: Legislature & CoM for some UTs 18.1.5: Special Provisions for Delhi (NCT) 18.1.6: Special Provisions for J&K and Ladakh 18.1.7: High Courts for UTs 18.1.8: Advisory Committees

Topic 18.2: Scheduled and Tribal Areas (Part X – Articles 244-244A)

18.2.1: Rationale 18.2.2: Administration of Scheduled Areas (5th Schedule) 18.2.3: Administration of Tribal Areas (6th Schedule) 18.2.4: Autonomous State in Assam (Art 244A)

Module 19: Constitutional Bodies: Pillars of Governance and Accountability

Topic 19.1: Introduction to Constitutional Bodies

19.1.1: Meaning

• Bodies whose establishment, powers, functions, and independence are directly provided for by the Constitution of India.

19.1.2: Significance

• Crucial role in democratic governance, checks and balances, upholding constitutional principles, protecting rights. Independence is vital.

19.1.3: Distinction from Statutory and Executive Bodies

• Statutory (Act of Parliament/State Legislature) and Executive Bodies (executive resolution/order).

Topic 19.2: Election Commission of India (ECI) (Article 324)

19.2.1: Constitutional Mandate

• Article 324: Superintendence, direction, and control of elections.

19.2.2: Composition (Article 324(2)-(5))

• 19.2.2.1: CEC and other ECs.
• 19.2.2.2: Current structure.
• 19.2.2.3: Appointment process (including recent Act and challenge).
• 19.2.2.4: Regional Commissioners.
• 19.2.2.5: Conditions of service and tenure.

19.2.3: Independence of ECI

• 19.2.3.1: Security of tenure for CEC.
• 19.2.3.2: Removal of other ECs/Regional Commissioners.
• 19.2.3.3: Conditions of service protection for CEC.
• 19.2.3.4: Flaws in independence provisions.

19.2.4: Powers and Functions of ECI

• 19.2.4.1: Administrative functions.
• 19.2.4.2: Advisory Jurisdiction.
• 19.2.4.3: Quasi-Judicial functions.

19.2.5: Vision, Mission, and Principles

• ECI's guiding philosophy.

19.2.6: Challenges and Electoral Reforms

• Details in Module 23.

Topic 19.3: Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) (Articles 315-323)

19.3.1: Role

• Central recruiting agency, watchdog of merit system.

19.3.2: Composition (Article 316)

• 19.3.2.1: Chairman and members appointed by President.
• 19.3.2.2: Strength not specified, left to President.
• 19.3.2.3: Half members with 10 years govt experience.

19.3.3: Term of Office and Conditions of Service

• 19.3.3.1: Term: 6 years or age 65.
• 19.3.3.2: Resignation to President.
• 19.3.3.3: Conditions of service determined by President.

19.3.4: Removal of Chairman/Members (Article 317)

• 19.3.4.1: Removal on misbehaviour after SC inquiry.
• 19.3.4.2: Other grounds for removal without SC reference.

19.3.5: Independence of UPSC

• Security of tenure, conditions of service, expenses charged on CFI, post-retirement restrictions.

19.3.6: Functions of UPSC (Article 320)

• 19.3.6.1: Conduct examinations.
• 19.3.6.2: Assist states in joint recruitment.
• 19.3.6.3: Advise President on various service matters.
• 19.3.6.4: Parliament can confer additional functions.
• 19.3.6.5: Submits annual report to President.

19.3.7: Limitations

• Not consulted on reservations, certain posts. President can exclude posts.

19.3.8: Role is advisory

• Not binding on government, but generally accepted.

Topic 19.4: State Public Service Commission (SPSC) (Articles 315-323)

19.4.1: Parallel body to UPSC at state level

• Similar structure and functions for state services.

19.4.2: Composition, Appointment, Term, Removal

• Similar to UPSC, Governor appoints, term 6 years/age 62, removal by President.

19.4.3: Independence

• Similar to UPSC regarding tenure, service conditions, post-retirement restrictions.

19.4.4: Functions

• Conduct exams for state services, advise Governor. Annual report to Governor.

19.4.5: Joint State Public Service Commission (JSPSC)

• For two or more states, statutory body created by Parliament. Chairman/members by President.

Topic 19.5: Finance Commission (FC) (Article 280)

19.5.1: Role

• Quasi-judicial body. Recommend distribution of financial resources. Balances fiscal federalism.

19.5.3: Composition

• Chairman and four other members. Qualifications prescribed by Parliament.

19.5.4: Term

• Specified in President's order. Eligible for reappointment.

19.5.5: Functions (Article 280(3))

• Distribution of net proceeds of taxes. Principles for grants-in-aid. Measures to augment State Consolidated Fund for PRIs/ULBs. Other matters.

19.5.6: Procedure and Powers

• Determines own procedure. Powers of a civil court.

19.5.7: Report

• Submits to President. Advisory, not binding.

19.5.8: Key recommendations of recent FCs

• E.g., 14th FC, 15th FC – tax devolution, grants, criteria.

Topic 19.6-19.13: Other Constitutional Bodies

19.6: NCSC (Art 338)

• Evolution, Composition, Functions, Powers.

19.7: NCST (Art 338A)

• Establishment, Composition, Functions, Powers.

19.8: NCBC (Art 338B, 342A)

• Evolution, Composition, Functions, Powers, Role in SEBC list.

19.9: CAG (Art 148-151)

• Role, Appointment, Independence, Duties, Powers, Reports.

19.10: Attorney General of India (Art 76)

• Appointment, Duties, Rights, Limitations. Solicitor General.

19.11: Advocate General of State (Art 165)

• Covered in Module 15 (State Executive).

19.12: Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities (Art 350-B)

• Appointment, Duty, Reports.

19.13: GST Council (Art 279A)

• Composition, Functions, Decision-making, Cooperative federalism.

Module 20: Non-Constitutional Bodies: Supporting Governance and Regulation

Topic 20.1: Introduction to Non-Constitutional Bodies

20.1.1: Meaning

• Not created by Constitution, derive authority from other sources.

20.1.2: Classification

• Statutory Bodies.
• Executive Bodies.

20.1.3: Significance

• Address specific needs of governance, regulation, rights protection.

Topic 20.2: NITI Aayog

20.2.1: Establishment

• Executive resolution (2015), replaced Planning Commission.

20.2.2: Rationale

• Cooperative federalism, bottom-up approach, policy think tank.

20.2.3: Composition

• Chairperson (PM), Governing Council, Regional Councils, Full-Time Framework.

20.2.4: Objectives and Functions

• Foster cooperative federalism, formulate credible plans, design policy frameworks, create knowledge hub.

20.2.5: Guiding Principles

• Antyodaya, Inclusion, Village, Demographic Dividend, People’s Participation.

20.2.6: Key Initiatives and Reports

• Action Agenda, Strategy Document, Vision Document, Various Indices, AIM.

20.2.7: NITI Aayog vs. Planning Commission

• Advisory vs. Fund allocation, Bottom-up vs. Top-down.

Topic 20.3-20.15: Other Key Non-Constitutional Bodies

20.3: NHRC

• Establishment, Composition, Functions, Powers, Limitations.

20.4: SHRC

• Establishment, Functions, Human Rights Courts.

20.5: CIC

• RTI Act, Composition, Appointment, Term (2019 Amd), Powers.

20.6: SIC

• State level counterpart to CIC.

20.7: CVC

• Statutory (CVC Act 2003), Composition, Functions, Jurisdiction.

20.8: CBI

• Non-statutory (DSPE Act), Functions, Issues ("Caged parrot").

20.9: Lokpal and Lokayuktas

• Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act 2013, Composition, Jurisdiction, Powers.

20.10: NCW

• Statutory (NCW Act 1990), Functions.

20.11: NCM

• Statutory (NCM Act 1992), Functions.

20.12: NCPCR

• Statutory (CPCR Act 2005), Functions.

20.13: NGT

• Statutory (NGT Act 2010), Jurisdiction, Impact.

20.14: Other Regulatory Bodies

• SEBI, IRDAI, TRAI, PFRDA, CCI, FSSAI, RBI.

20.15: Law Commission of India

• Non-statutory executive body, Role in legal reform.

Module 21: Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes (Part XVI)

Topic 21.1: Rationale and Scope

21.1.1: Constitutional Commitment

• Secure justice and equality for disadvantaged sections.

Topic 21.2-21.4: Reservations & Representation

21.2: Reservation for SCs/STs in Legislature

• Art 330, 332, 334 (Duration, 104th Amd).

21.3: Representation of Anglo-Indians (Ceased)

• Art 331, 333 (Now ceased by 104th Amd).

21.4: Claims of SCs/STs to Services (Art 335)

• Balancing equity with efficiency.

Topic 21.5-21.11: Commissions, Identification, Welfare & Debates

21.5: National Commissions (NCSC, NCST, NCBC)

• Constitutional watchdogs (Module 19 Ref).

21.7: Identification of SCs, STs, SEBCs

• Art 341, 342, 342A (105th Amd impact).

21.8-21.9: Union Control & Grants for ST Welfare

• Art 339 (Commission, Union's executive power). Art 275(1) Proviso (Grants).

21.10-21.11: Impact & Contemporary Debates

• Positive impacts, limitations. Debates on private sector reservation, creamy layer, EWS, caste census.

Module 22: Official Language (Part XVII; Eighth Schedule)

Topic 22.1-22.2: Constitutional Mandate & Language of Union

22.1: Constitutional Mandate & Historical Context

• Rationale, Constituent Assembly debates, Munshi-Ayyangar formula.

22.2: Language of the Union (Art 343-344)

• Hindi in Devanagari, English continuance, Official Languages Act 1963, Commission & Committee.

Topic 22.3-22.5: Regional, Judiciary Languages & Directives

22.3: Regional Languages (Art 345-347)

• State official language, Inter-State/Union-State communication, Special provision for language spoken by a section.

22.4: Language of Judiciary & Texts of Laws (Art 348-349)

• English in SC/HCs, Authoritative texts of laws in English.

22.5: Special Directives (Art 350-351)

• Grievances, Mother-tongue instruction, Special Officer, Hindi development.

Topic 22.6-22.8: Eighth Schedule, Classical Languages & Debates

22.6: Eighth Schedule

• Recognized languages, Additions, Significance, Demands.

22.7: Classical Languages of India

• Criteria, Declared languages, Benefits.

22.8: Debates and Issues Regarding Language Policy

• Hindi imposition, Three-Language Formula, Status of English, Technology and language.

Module 23: Political Dynamics and Governance Issues

Topic 23.1-23.3: Elections, Parties, Anti-Defection

23.1: Elections and Electoral System

• Constitutional Provisions, Key Legislations, Electoral Process, FPTP System, Reforms.

23.2: Political Parties in India

• Functions, Party System Evolution, Recognition, Issues.

23.3: Anti-Defection Law (Tenth Schedule)

• Grounds for Disqualification, Exceptions, Deciding Authority, Judicial Review, Criticisms.

Topic 23.4-23.6: Pressure Groups, Co-ops, Governance Issues

23.4: Pressure Groups and Interest Groups

• Types, Methods, Role in Indian Polity.

23.5: Cooperative Societies (Part IX-B)

• Constitutional Provisions, Issues, Ministry of Cooperation.

23.6: Governance: Concepts and Contemporary Issues

• Good Governance, E-Governance, Civil Services Role, Transparency & Accountability, Ethics.

Module 24: Miscellaneous Constitutional Provisions and Frameworks

Topic 24.1: Property, Contracts, Rights, Liabilities (Part XII)

24.1.1: General Financial Provisions

• Art 265 (Taxation), Art 266 (Consolidated/Public Funds), Art 267 (Contingency Fund).

24.1.3: Property, Contracts, Rights, Liabilities, Suits

• Art 294-300 (Succession, Escheat, Territorial Waters, Trade Power, Contracts, Suits).

24.1.4: Right to Property (Art 300A)

• Constitutional/Legal Right (44th Amd). Implications.

Topic 24.2: Trade, Commerce and Intercourse (Part XIII)

24.2.1-24.2.7: Freedom & Restrictions

• Art 301 (Freedom), Art 302-305 (Restrictions, State Monopolies), Art 307 (Authority). Judicial Interpretation.

Topic 24.3-24.8: Services, Tribunals, Hindi Text, Repeals, Part XXI

24.3: Services under Union & States (Part XIV)

• Art 309-313 (Recruitment, Tenure/Pleasure, Art 311 Safeguards, AIS).

24.4: Tribunals (Part XIV-A)

• Art 323A, 323B (Module 16 Ref).

24.5: Authoritative Text in Hindi (Art 394A)

• 58th Amendment.

24.6: Repeals (Art 395)

• Repeal of Indian Independence Act 1947, GoI Act 1935.

24.7: Temporary, Transitional & Special Provisions (Part XXI)

• Art 370 (J&K - status changed), Art 371 series (Special provisions for various states).

24.8: Short Title, Commencement (Part XXII)

• Art 393 (Title), Art 394 (Commencement).

Module 25: Working of the Constitution and Contemporary Constitutional Issues

Topic 25.1: NCRWC (2000-2002)

25.1.1-25.1.4: Mandate, Review Areas, Recommendations, Impact

• Venkatachaliah Commission's work and its relevance.

Topic 25.2: Major Debates and Contemporary Challenges

25.2.1-25.2.12: Key Issues

• UCC, Secularism, Reservation, Free Speech, Privacy, Federal Tensions, Judicial Role, Parliamentary Functioning, Institutional Independence, CAA/NRC, Simultaneous Elections, Digital Transformation.

Topic 25.3-25.4: International Law Impact & Living Constitution

25.3: Impact of International Law

• Art 51, 253. Judicial Interpretation, Influence on domestic laws.

25.4: Constitution as a Living Document

• Adaptability, Resilience, Constitutional Morality, Future Challenges.